Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T14:17:44.813Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Divided Groups, Polarized Identities, and Extremist Behavior

The Role of Exclusion-Contingent Self and Identity Uncertainty

from Part II - Drivers of the Exclusion–Extremism Link

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2024

By
Joseph A. Wagoner  and
Michael A. Hogg
Edited by
Michaela Pfundmair ,
Andrew H. Hales  and
Kipling D. Williams
Michaela Pfundmair
Affiliation:
Federal University of Administrative Sciences, Germany
Andrew H. Hales
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi
Kipling D. Williams
Affiliation:
Purdue University, Indiana
Get access

Summary

Feeling marginalized, silenced and excluded, as an individual or as a (sub)group within a collective, can make one feel uncertain about one’s self and identity and about “fitting in.” This feeling of uncertainty can be reduced by group identification – especially with a distinctive group that has a clearly defined, unambiguous, and homogenous social identity. Such groups and identities can sometimes be characterized as extremist. Excluded individuals may exit the larger group to identify with a different and possibly more extreme group, and the larger group may thus become less diverse and more homogeneous and extreme itself. Members of excluded subgroups can bond tightly together as a highly distinctive entity and identify strongly with it, a process that can fragment and polarize the larger group into oppositional or combative factions. In this chapter we draw upon an uncertainty identity theory framework to describe how exclusion can generate self and identity uncertainty, which is resolved by a process of identification that fragments groups and can produce extremist groups and identities.

Keywords

uncertaintysocial identityselfextremismgroup processes
Type
Chapter
Information
Exclusion and Extremism
A Psychological Perspective
 , pp. 141 - 165
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (1988). Comments on the motivational status of self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 317–334. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420180403CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrams, D., Randsley de Moura, G., & Travaglino, G. A. (2013). A double standard when group members behave badly: Transgression credit to ingroup leaders. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 799–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033600CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abrams, D., Travaglino, G. A., Marques, J. M., Pinto, I., & Levine, J. M. (2018). Deviance credit: Tolerance of deviant ingroup leaders is mediated by their accrual of prototypicality and conferral of their right to be supported. Journal of Social Issues, 74, 36–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12255CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adelman, J. R., Hogg, M. A., & Levin, S. (2012). Uncertainty and extremism in the Middle East: The role of Israeli and Palestinian social identity dynamics. [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Claremont Graduate University.Google Scholar
Arkin, R. M., Oleson, K. C., & Carroll, P. J. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of the uncertain self. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Barreto, N. B., & Hogg, M. A. (2017). Evaluation of and support for group prototypical leaders: A meta-analysis of twenty years of empirical research. Social Influence, 12, 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2017.1316771CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, J. C., & Tausch, N. (2015). A dynamic model of engagement in normative and non-normative collective action: Psychological antecedents, consequences, and barriers. European Review of Social Psychology, 26, 43–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2015.1094265CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belavadi, S., & Hogg, M. A. (2018). We are victims! How observers evaluate a group’s claim of collective victimhood. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 48, 651–660. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12555CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belavadi, S., Rinella, M. J., & Hogg, M. A. (2020). When social identity-defining groups become violent: Collective responses to identity uncertainty, status erosion, and resource threat. In C. A. Ireland, M. Lewis, A. C., Lopez, & J. L. Ireland (Eds.), The Handbook of Collective Violence (pp. 17–30). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Cichocka, A., Douglas, K., & Sutton, R. (2022). A systematic review and meta-analytic synthesis of the motives associated with conspiracy beliefs. PsyArXiv Preprint. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/rxjqcCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1996). The biopsychosocial model of arousal regulation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 1–51. https://doi.org/S0065-2601(08)60235-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowes, S. M., Costello, T. H., & Tasimi, A. (2023). The conspiratorial mind: A meta-analytic review of motivational and personological correlates. Psychological Bulletin, 149, 259–293. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000392CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. K., Hohman, Z. P., Niedbala, E. M., & Stinnett, A. J. (2021). Sweating the big stuff: Arousal and stress as functions of self‐uncertainty and identification. Psychophysiology, 58, e13836. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13836CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, D. T. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science, 3, 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830030103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., & Bourguignon, D. (2003). We are one and I like it: The impact of ingroup entitativity on ingroup identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 735–754. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.175CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., Bourguignon, D., & Seron, E. (2002). Who may enter? The impact of in-group identification on in-group/out-group categorization. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 315–322. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2001.1512CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, E. U., & Hogg, M. A. (2020). Self-uncertainty and group identification: A meta-analysis. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23, 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430219846990CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014). The psychology of change: Self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 333–371. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115137CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowling, M. M., Anderson, J. R., & Ferguson, R. (2019). Prejudice-relevant correlates of attitudes towards refugees: A meta-analysis. Journal of Refugee Studies, 32, 502–524. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fey062CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, M. T., & Salaman, L. (2012). Entitativity, identity, and the fulfilment of psychological needs. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 726–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuddy, A. J., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2007). Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 61–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(07)00002-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, J. (1929/2005). The quest for certainty: A study of the relation of knowledge and action. Kessinger Publishing.Google Scholar
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2018). Why conspiracy theories matter: A social psychological analysis. European Review of Social Psychology, 29, 256–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1537428CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., & Cichoka, A. (2017). The psychology of conspiracy theories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26, 538–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Saguy, T. (2008). Another view of “we”: Majority and minority group perspectives on a common ingroup identity. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 296–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701726132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erisen, C., Guidi, M., Martini, S., et al. (2021). Psychological correlates of populist attitudes. Political Psychology, 42, 149–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12768CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinberg, M., Willer, R., & Kovacheff, C. (2020). The activist’s dilemma: Extreme protest actions reduce popular support for social movements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119, 1086–1111. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000230CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forgas, J. P., & Crano, W. D. (2021). The psychology of populism: The tribal challenge to liberal democracy. In Forgas, J. P., Crano, W. D., & Fielder, K. (Eds.), The psychology of populism (pp. 1–19). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frings, D., Hurst, J., Cleveland, C., Blascovich, J., & Abrams, D. (2012). Challenge, threat, and subjective group dynamics: Reactions to normative and deviant group members. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 16, 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027504CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Goldman, L., & Hogg, M. A. (2016). Going to extremes for one’s group: The role of prototypicality and group acceptance. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 46, 544–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12382CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gøtzsche-Astrup, O. (2019). Personality moderates the relationship between uncertainty and political violence: Evidence from two large US samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 102–109. https://doi.org/j.paid.2018.11.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gøtzsche-Astrup, O. (2021a). Dark triad, partisanship and violent intentions in the United States. Personality and Individual Differences, 173, 110633. https://doi.org/j.paid.2021.110633CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gøtzsche-Astrup, O. (2021b). Pathways to violence: Do uncertainty and dark world perceptions increase intentions to engage in political violence? Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 13, 142–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2020.1714693CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gøtzsche-Astrup, O., & Hogg, M. A. (2023). Let the people’s will prevail: Self-uncertainty and authoritarianism predict support for populism. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231211291CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grieve, P. G., & Hogg, M. A. (1999). Subjective uncertainty and intergroup discrimination in the minimal group situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 926–940. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672992511002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guillén, L., Jacquart, P., & Hogg, M. A. (2023). To lead, or to follow? How self-uncertainty and the dark triad of personality influence leadership motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 49, 1043–1057. https://doi.org/01461672221086771CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haas, I. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2014). The uncertainty paradox: Perceived threat moderates the effect of uncertainty on political tolerance. Political Psychology, 35, 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12035CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, S. J. (1996). Perceiving persons and groups. Psychological Review, 103, 336–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.336CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, J., & Kim, Y. (2020). Defeating merchants of doubt: Subjective certainty and self-affirmation ameliorate attitude polarization via partisan motivated reasoning. Public Understanding of Science, 29, 729–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662520939315CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassan, B., Khattak, A. Z., Qureshi, M. S., & Iqbal, N. (2021). Development and validation of extremism and violence risk identification scale. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 36, 51–70. https://doi.org/10.33824/PJPR.2021.36.1.04CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 184–200. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A. (2007). Uncertainty-identity theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 69–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(06)39002-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A. (2021a). Self-uncertainty and group identification: Consequences for social identity, group behavior, intergroup relations, and society. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 64, 263–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2021.04.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A. (2021b). Uncertain self in a changing world: A foundation for radicalisation, populism, and autocratic leadership. European Review of Social Psychology, 32, 235–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1827628CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., & Gøtzsche-Astrup, O. (2021). Self-uncertainty and populism: Why we endorse populist ideologies, identify with populist groups, and support populist leaders. In Forgas, J. P., Crano, W. D., & Fiedler, K. (Eds.), The psychology of populism: The tribal challenge to liberal democracy (pp. 197–218). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., & Grieve, P. (1999). Social identity theory and the crisis of confidence in social psychology: A commentary, and some research on uncertainty reduction. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-839X.00027CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., & Mahajan, N. (2018). Domains of self‐uncertainty and their relationship to group identification. Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology, 2, 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts5.20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., Meehan, C., & Farquharson, J. (2010). The solace of radicalism: Self-uncertainty and group identification in the face of threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1061–1066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., & RastIII, D. E. (2022). Intergroup leadership: The challenge of successfully leading fractured groups and societies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31, 564–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221121598CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., Sherman, D. K., Dierselhuis, J., Maitner, A. T., & Moffitt, G. (2007). Uncertainty, entitativity, and group identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 135-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., van Knippenberg, D., & Rast III, D. E. (2012). The social identity theory of leadership: Theoretical origins, research findings, and conceptual developments. European Review of Social Psychology, 23, 258–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2012.741134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hohman, Z. P., Gaffney, A. M., & Hogg, M. A. (2017). Who am I if I am not like my group? Self-uncertainty and feeling peripheral in a group. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72, 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp/2017.05.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornsey, M. J., Bierwiaczonek, K., Sassenberg, K., & Douglas, K. M. (2023). Individual, intergroup and nation-level influences on belief in conspiracy theories. Nature Reviews Psychology, 2, 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00133-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hornsey, M. J., & Hogg, M. A. (2000). Assimilation and diversity: An integrative model of subgroup relations. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_03CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jetten, J., Branscombe, N. R., & Spears, R. (2002). On being peripheral: Effects of identity insecurity on personal and collective self‐esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 105–123. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.64CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, A. L., Crawford, M. T., Sherman, S. J., et al. (2006). A functional perspective on group memberships: Differential need fulfillment in a group typology. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 707–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.08.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, J., Hogg, M. A., & Choi, H. S. (2016). Reaching across the DMZ: Identity uncertainty and reunification on the Korean peninsula. Political Psychology, 37, 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, J., Hogg, M. A., & Lewis, G. J. (2018). Identity uncertainty and UK–Scottish relations: Different dynamics depending on relative identity centrality. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21, 861–873. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430216678329CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kappes, A., Nussberger, A. M., Faber, N. S., et al. (2018). Uncertainty about the impact of social decisions increases prosocial behaviour. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 573–580. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0372-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kende, A., & Krekó, P. (2020). Xenophobia, prejudice, and right-wing populism in East-Central Europe. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 34, 29–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.11.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kershaw, C., RastIII, D. E., Hogg, M. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2021a). Divided groups need leadership: A study of the effectiveness of collective identity, dual identity, and intergroup relational identity rhetoric. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 51, 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12715CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kershaw, C., RastIII, D. E., Hogg, M. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2021b). Battling ingroup bias with effective intergroup leadership. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60, 765–785. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12445CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khumalo, N., Dumont, K. B., & Waldzus, S. (2022). Leaders’ influence on collective action: An identity leadership perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 33, 101609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2022.101609CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lickel, B., Hamilton, D. L., Wieczorkowska, G., et al. (2000). Varieties of groups and the perception of group entitativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 223–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.223CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marchlewska, M., Cichocka, A., Panayiotou, O., Castellanos, K., & Batayneh, J. (2018). Populism as identity politics: Perceived in-group disadvantage, collective narcissism, and support for populism. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9, 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617732393CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mastandrea, S., Wagoner, J. A., & Hogg, M. A. (2021). Liking for abstract and representational art: National identity as an art appreciation heuristic. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 15, 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000272CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGregor, I., Prentice, M., & Nash, K. (2013). Anxious uncertainty and reactive approach motivation (RAM) for religious, idealistic, and lifestyle extremes. Journal of Social Issues, 69, 537–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12028CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullin, B. A., & Hogg, M. A. (1998). Dimensions of subjective uncertainty in social identification and minimal intergroup discrimination. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1998.tb01176.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mutallimzada, K., & Steiner, K. (2023). Fighters’ motivations for joining extremist groups: Investigating the attractiveness of the Right Sector’s Volunteer Ukrainian Corps. European Journal of International Security, 8, 47–69. https://doi.org/10.1017/eis.2022.11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niedbala, E. M., & Hohman, Z. P. (2019). Retaliation against the outgroup: The role of self-uncertainty. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 22, 708–723. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218767027CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollack, H. N. (2003). Uncertain science … uncertain world. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RastIII, D. E., Gaffney, A. M., Hogg, M. A., & Crisp, R. J. (2012). Leadership under uncertainty: When leaders who are non-prototypical group members can gain support. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 646–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RastIII, D. E., Hogg, M. A., & Giessner, S. R. (2013). Self-uncertainty and support for autocratic leadership. Self and Identity, 12, 635–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2012.718864CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RastIII, D. E., Hogg, M. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2018). Intergroup leadership across distinct subgroups and identities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 1090–1103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218757466CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RastIII, D. E., van Knippenberg, D., & Hogg, M. A. (2020). Intergroup relational identity: Development and validation of a scale and construct. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23, 943–966. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430219883350CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, S. A., & Hogg, M. A. (2005). Uncertainty reduction, self-enhancement, and ingroup identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 804–817. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271708CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rios, K., Sosa, N., & Osborn, H. (2018). An experimental approach to intergroup threat theory: Manipulations, moderators, and consequences of realistic vs. symbolic threat. European Review of Social Psychology, 29, 212–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1537049CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruggieri, S., Gagliano, M., Servidio, R., Pace, U., & Passanisi, A. (2023). The effects of leader self-sacrifice in virtual teams on prosocial behavior: The mediational role of team identification and self-efficacy. Sustainability, 15, 6098. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076098CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheepers, D. (2009). Turning social identity threat into challenge: Status stability and cardiovascular reactivity during inter-group competition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 228–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., Luke, M. A., O’Mara, E. M., & Gebauer, J. E. (2013). A three-tier hierarchy of self-potency: Individual self, relational self, collective self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 235–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407188-9.00005-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seyranian, V. (2014). Social identity framing communication strategies for mobilizing social change. The Leadership Quarterly, 25, 468–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.10.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherman, D. K., Hogg, M. A., & Maitner, A. T. (2009). Perceived polarization: Reconciling ingroup and intergroup perceptions under uncertainty. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430208098779CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sibley, C. G., & Duckitt, J. (2008). Personality and prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12, 248–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319226CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffens, N. K., Munt, K. A., van Knippenberg, D., Platow, M. J., & Haslam, S. A. (2017). Advancing the social identity theory of leadership: A meta-analytic review of leader group prototypicality. Organizational Psychology Review, 11, 35–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386620962569CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In Worchel, S. & Austin, W. G. (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Blackwell.Google Scholar
van der Stoep, J., Sleebos, E., van Knippenberg, D., & van de Bunt, G. (2020). The empowering potential of intergroup leadership: How intergroup leadership predicts psychological empowerment through intergroup relational identification and resources. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 50, 709–719. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12707CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Prooijen, J. W. (2016). Sometimes inclusion breeds suspicion: Self‐uncertainty and belongingness predict belief in conspiracy theories. European Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2157CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Prooijen, J. W., & Jostmann, N. B. (2013). Belief in conspiracy theories: The influence of uncertainty and perceived morality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 109–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1922CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Zomeren, M., Kutlaca, M., & Turner-Zwinkels, F. (2018). Integrating who “we” are with what “we” (will not) stand for: A further extension of the social identity model of collective action. European Review of Social Psychology, 29, 122–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1479347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagoner, J. A., Antonini, M., Hogg, M. A., Barbieri, B., & Talamo, A. (2018). Identity‐centrality, dimensions of uncertainty, and pursuit of subgroup autonomy: The case of Sardinia within Italy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 48, 582–589. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12549CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagoner, J. A., Belavadi, S., & Jung, J. (2017). Social identity uncertainty: Conceptualization, measurement, and construct validity. Self and Identity, 16, 505–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2016.1275762CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagoner, J. A., & Chur, M. (2024). Domains of uncertainty, identification processes, and exit intentions. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231215043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagoner, J. A., & Hogg, M. A. (2016a). Uncertainty and group identification: Moderation by warmth and competence as cues to inclusion and identity validation. Self and Identity, 15, 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2016.1163284CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagoner, J. A., & Hogg, M. A. (2016b). Normative dissensus, identity-uncertainty, and subgroup autonomy. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 20, 310–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/gdn0000057CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagoner, J. A., Rinella, M. J., & Barreto, N. B. (2021). “It was rigged”: Different types of identification predict activism and radicalism in the US 2020 election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 21, 189–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/asap.12270CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenzel, M., Waldzus, S., & Steffens, M. C. (2016). Ingroup projection as a challenge of diversity: Consensus about and complexity of superordinate categories. In Sibley, C. G. & Barlow, F. K. (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice (pp. 65–89). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316161579.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wichman, A. L. (2010). Uncertainty and religious reactivity: Uncertainty compensation, repair, and inoculation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.712CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, T. D., Centerbar, D. B., Kermer, D. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2005). The pleasures of uncertainty: Prolonging positive moods in ways people do not anticipate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, R., Long, L., & Hao, P. (2016). Positive affect, environmental uncertainty, and self-sacrificial leadership influence followers’ self-sacrificial behavior. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 44, 1515–1524. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2016.44.9.1515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×