Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T18:09:30.789Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 1 - Neonatal Encephalopathy

Epidemiology and Overview

from Section 1 - Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Pathogenesis of Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2017

By
Matthew B. Wallenstein  and
Philip Sunshine
Edited by
David K. Stevenson ,
William E. Benitz ,
Philip Sunshine ,
Susan R. Hintz  and
Maurice L. Druzin
David K. Stevenson
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
William E. Benitz
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Philip Sunshine
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Susan R. Hintz
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Maurice L. Druzin
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury , pp. 1 - 20
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Stanley, F, Blair, E, Alberman, E. Cerebral Palsies: Epidemiology and Causal Pathways (Clinics in Developmental Medicine 151). London: MacKeith Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Leviton, A. How much of neonatal encephalopathy is due to birth asphyxia? Am J Dis Child 1991; 145: 1325–31.Google Scholar
Gaffney, G, Flavell, V, Johnson, A, et al. Cerebral palsy and neonatal encephalopathy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1994; 70: F195–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perlman, JM, Risser, R. Can asphyxiated infants at risk for neonatal seizures be rapidly identified by current high-risk markers? Pediatrics 1996; 97: 456–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badawi, N, Kurinczuk, JJ, Keogh, JM, et al. Intrapartum risk factor for newborn encephalopathy: the Western Australian case control study. BMJ 1998; 317: 1554–8.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Grether, JK. Potentially asphyxiating conditions and spastic cerebral palsy in infants of normal birth weight. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179: 507–13.Google Scholar
MacLennan, A. A template for defining a causal relationship between acute intrapartum events and cerebral palsy: international consensus statement International Cerebral Palsy Task Force. BMJ 1999; 319: 1054–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelan, JP, Kim, JO. Fetal heart rate observations in the brain damaged infant. Semin Perinatol 2000; 24: 221–9.Google Scholar
Hankins, GDV, Speer, M. Defining the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of neonatal encephalopathy and cerebral palsy. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102: 628–36.Google Scholar
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Academy of Pediatrics. Neonatal Encephalopathy and Neurologic Outcome, 2nd edn. Washington, DC: ACOG, 2014.Google Scholar
Cowan, F, Rutherford, M, Groenendaal, F, et al. Origin and timing of brain lesions in term infants with neonatal encephalopathy. Lancet 2003; 361: 736–42.Google Scholar
Shevell, MI. The “Bermuda Triangle” of neonatal neurology: cerebral palsy, neonatal encephalopathy, and intrapartum asphyxia. Semin Pediatr Neurol 2004; 11: 24–30.Google Scholar
Perlman, JM. Brain injury in the term infant. Semin Perinatol 2004; 28: 415–24.Google Scholar
Ferriero, DM. Neonatal brain injury. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1985–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartha, AI, Foster-Barber, A, Miller, SP, et al. Neonatal encephalopathy: association of cytokines and MR spectroscopy and outcome. Pediatr Res 2004; 56: 960–6.Google Scholar
Becher, JC, Bell, JE, Keeling, JW, et al. The Scottish perinatal neuropathology study: clinicopathological correlation in early neonatal deaths. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2004; 89: F399–407.Google Scholar
Low, JA. Determining the contribution of asphyxia to brain damage in the neonate. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2004; 30: 276–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierrat, V, Haouari, N, Liska, A, et al. Prevalence, causes, and outcome at 2 years of age of newborn encephalopathy: population-based study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2005; 90: F257–61.Google Scholar
Badawi, N, Felix, JF, Kurinczuk, JJ, et al. Cerebral palsy following term newborn encephalopathy: a population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005; 47: 293–8.Google Scholar
Foley, ME, Alarab, M, Daly, L, et al. Term neonatal asphyxial seizures and peripartum deaths: lack of correlation with a rising cesarean delivery rate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 192: 102–8.Google Scholar
Haider, BA, Bhutta, ZA. Birth asphyxia in developing countries: current status and public health implications. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2006; 36: 178–88.Google Scholar
Thorngren-Jerneck, K, Herbst, A. Perinatal factors associated with cerebral palsy in children born in Sweden. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 108: 1499–505.Google Scholar
Perlman, JM. Intrapartum asphyxia and cerebral palsy: is there a link? Clin Perinatol 2006; 33: 335–53.Google Scholar
Bercher, JC, Stenson, B, Lyon, A. Is intrapartum asphyxia preventable? BJOG 2007; 114: 1442–4.Google Scholar
Flidel-Rimon, O, Shinwell, ES. Neonatal aspects of the relationship between intrapartum events and cerebral palsy. Clin Perinatol 2007; 34: 439–49.Google Scholar
Milsom, I, Ladfors, L, Thiringer, K, et al. Influence of maternal, obstetric and fetal risk factors on the prevelance of birth asphyxia at term in a Swedish urban population. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002; 81: 909–17.Google Scholar
Hogan, L, Ingemarsson, I, Thorngren-Jerneck, K, et al. How often is a low 5-min Apgar score in term infants due to asphyxia? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2007; 130: 169–75.Google Scholar
Rennie, JM, Hagmann, CF, Robertson, NJ. Outcome after intrapartum hypoxic ischemia at term. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2007; 12: 398–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volpe, JJ. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. In Volpe, JJ, ed., Neurology of the Newborn, 5th edn. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2008: 400–80.Google Scholar
Eicher, DJ, Wagner, CL, Katikaneni, LP, et al. Moderate hypothermia in neonatal encephalopathy: efficacy outcomes. Pediatr Neurol 2005; 32: 11–17.Google Scholar
Gluckman, PD, Wyatt, JS, Azzopardi, D, et al. Selective head cooling with mild systemic hypothermia after neonatal encephalopathy: multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2005; 365: 663–70.Google Scholar
Shankaran, S, Laptook, AR, Ehrenkranz, RA, et al. Whole-body hypothermia for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1574–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Azzopardi, DV, Strohm, B, Edwards, AD, et al. Moderate hypothermia to treat perinatal asphyxial encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1349–58.Google Scholar
Simbruner, G, Mittal, RA, Rohlmann, F, Muche, R. Systemic hypothermia after neonatal encephalopathy. Pediatrics 2010; 126: e771–8.Google Scholar
Zhou, WH, Cheng, GQ, Shao, XM, et al. Selective head cooling with mild systemic hypothermia after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: a multicenter randomized controlled trial in China. J Pediatr 2010; 157: 367–72.Google Scholar
Tagin, MA, Woolcott, CG, Vincer, MJ, et al. Hypothermia for neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012; 166: 558–66.Google Scholar
Takenouchi, T, Iwata, O, Nabetani, M, Tamura, M. Therapeutic hypothermia for neonatal encephalopathy: JSPNM&MHLW Japan Working Group Practice Guidelines Consensus Statement from the Working Group on Therapeutic Hypothermia for Neonatal Encephalopathy, Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW), Japan, and Japan Society for Perinatal and Neonatal Medicine (JSPNM). Brain Dev 2012; 34: 165–70.Google Scholar
Jacobs, SE, Morley, CJ, Inder, TE. Whole-body hypothermia for term and near-term newborns with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: a randomized, controlled trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011; 165: 692–700.Google Scholar
Jacobs, SE, Berg, M, Hunt, R, et al. Cooling for newborns with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 1: CD003311.Google Scholar
Committee on Obstetric Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion. Number 326, December 2005. Inappropriate use of the terms fetal distress and birth asphyxia. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 1469–70.Google Scholar
Volpe, JJ. Neonatal encephalopathy: an inadequate term for hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Ann Neurol 2012; 72: 156–66.Google Scholar
Wu, Y. Brain injury in newborn babies: we can’t afford to get it wrong. Ann Neurol 2012; 72: 151.Google Scholar
Harteman, JC, Nikkels, PGJ, Benders, MJNL, et al. Placental pathology in full-term infants with hypoxic-ischemic neonatal encephalopathy and association with magnetic resonance imaging pattern of brain injury. J Pediatr 2013; 163: 968–75.Google Scholar
Chang, KT. Examination of the placenta: medico-legal implications. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2014; 19: 279–84.Google Scholar
Nasiell, J, Papadogiannakis, N, Lof, E, et al. Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy in newborns linked to placental and umbilical cord abnormalities. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2015; 5: 1–6.Google Scholar
Lachapelle, J, Chen, M, Oskoui, M, et al. Placental pathology in asphyxiated newborns treated with therapeutic hypothermia. J Neonatal Perinatal Med 2015; 8: 33–40.Google Scholar
Clarke, P, Gardner, D, Venkatesh, V, et al. Investigation of neonatal encephalopathy: the oft-lost placental “black box.” Pediatr Dev Pathol 2015; 18: 343–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, RE. Two patterns of perinatal brain damage and their conditions of occurrence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972; 112: 246–76.Google Scholar
Mallard, EC, Williams, CE, Johnston, BM, et al. Repeated episodes of umbilical cord occlusion in fetal sheep lead to preferential damage to the striatum and sensitize the heart to further insults. Pediatr Res 1995; 37: 707–13.Google Scholar
Ghei, SK, Zan, E, Nathan, JE, et al. MR imaging of hypoxic-ischemic injury in term neonates: pearls and pitfalls. Radiographics 2014; 34: 1047–61.Google Scholar
Leung, AS, Leung, EK, Paul, RH. Uterine rupture after previous cesarean delivery: maternal and fetal consequences. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 945–50.Google Scholar
Lee, ACC, Kozuki, N, Blencowe, H, et al. Intrapartum-related neonatal encephalopathy incidence and impairment at regional and global levels for 2010 with trends from 1990. Pediatr Res 2013; 74: 50–72.Google Scholar
Thornberg, E, Thiringer, K, Odeback, A, Milsom, I. Birth asphyxia: incidence, clinical course and outcome in a Swedish population. Acta Paediatr 1995; 84: 927–32.Google Scholar
Graham, EM, Ruis, KA, Hartman, AL, et al. A systematic review of the role of intrapartum hypoxia-ischemia in the causation of neonatal encephalopathy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 199: 587–95.Google Scholar
Lee, AC, Kozuki, N, Blencowe, H, et al. Intrapartum-related neonatal encephalopathy incidence and impairment at regional and global levels for 2010 with trends from 1990. Pediatr Res 2013; 74: 50–72.Google Scholar
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Task Force on Neonatal Encephalopathy. Executive summary: neonatal encephalopathy and neurologic outcome, second edition. Report of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Task Force on Neonatal Encephalopathy. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123: 896–901.Google Scholar
Sarnat, HB, Sarnat, MS. Neonatal encephalopathy following fetal distress: a clinical and electroencephalographic study. Arch Neurol 1976; 33: 696–705.Google Scholar
Wu, YW, Backstrand, KH, Zhao, S, et al. Declining diagnosis of birth asphyxia in California: 1991–2000. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 1584–90.Google Scholar
Martin, JA, Kochanek, KD, Strobino, DM, et al. Annual summary of vital statistics: 2003. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 619–34.Google Scholar
Hayakawa, M, Ito, Y, Saito, S, et al. Incidence and prediction of outcome in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in Japan. Pediatr Int 2014; 56: 215–21.Google Scholar
Locatelli, A, Incerti, M, Paterlini, G, et al. Antepartum and intrapartum risk factors for neonatal encephalopathy at term. Am J Perinatol 2010; 27: 649–54.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Bingham, P, Edwards, EM, et al. Antecedents of neonatal encephalopathy in the Vermont Oxford Network Encephalopathy Registry. Pediatrics 2012; 130: 878–86.Google Scholar
Hayes, BC, McGarvey, C, Mulvany, S, et al. A case-control study of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in newborn infants at >36 weeks’ gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 209: e1–29.Google Scholar
Martinez-Biarge, M, Diez-Sebastian, J, Wusthoff, CJ, et al. Antepartum and intrapartum factors preceding neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatrics 2013; 132: e952–9.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Ellenberg, JH. Obstetric complications as risk factors for cerebral palsy or seizure disorders. JAMA 1984; 251: 1843–8.Google Scholar
Blair, E, Al Asedy, F, Badawi, N, et al. Is cerebral palsy associated with birth defects other than cerebral defects? Dev Med Child Neurol 2007; 49: 252–8.Google Scholar
Kahana, B, Sheiner, E, Levy, A, et al. Umbilical cord prolapse and perinatal outcomes. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2004; 84: 127–32.Google Scholar
Wu, YW, Escobar, GJ, Grether, JK, et al. Chorioamnionitis and cerebral palsy in term and near-term infants. JAMA 2003; 290: 2677–84.Google Scholar
Tekgul, H, Yalaz, M, Kutukculer, N, et al. Value of biochemical markers for outcome in term infants with asphyxia. Pediatr Neurol 2004; 31: 326–32.Google Scholar
Ramaswamy, V, Horton, J, Vandermeer, B, et al. Systematic review of biomarkers of brain injury in term neonatal encephalopathy. Pediatr Neurol 2009; 40: 215–26.Google Scholar
Kasdorf, E, Perlman, J. Hyperthermia, inflammation, and perinatal brain injury. Pediatr Neurol 2013; 49: 8–14.Google Scholar
Jenster, M, Bonifacio, SL, Ruel, T, et al. Maternal or neonatal infection: association with neonatal encephalopathy outcomes. Pediatr Res 2014; 76: 93–9.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Penn, AA. Is infection a factor in neonatal encephalopathy? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015; 100: F8–10.Google Scholar
O’Hare, FM, Watson, RWG, O’Neill, A, et al. Persistent systemic monocyte and neutrophil activation in neonatal encephalopathy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2016; 29: 582–9.Google Scholar
Hagberg, H, Mallard, C, Ferriero, DM, et al. The role of inflammation in perinatal brain injury. Nat Rev 2015; 11: 192–208.Google Scholar
Apgar, VA. A proposal for a new method of evaluation of the newborn infant. Curr Res Anesth Analg 1953; 32: 260–7.Google Scholar
Odd, DE, Lewis, G, Whitelaw, A, Gunnell, D. Resuscitation at birth and cognition at 8 years of age: a cohort study. Lancet 2009; 373: 1615–22.Google Scholar
Natarajan, G, Hankaran, S, Laptook, AR, et al. Apgar scores at 10 min and outcomes at 6–7 years following hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2013; 98: F473–9.Google Scholar
Shah, P, Anvekar, A, McMichael, J, Rao, S. Outcomes of infants with Apgar score of zero at 10 min: the West Australian experience. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015; 100: F492–4.Google Scholar
Kasdorf, E, Laptook, A, Azzopardi, D, et al. Improving infant outcome with a 10 min Apgar of 0. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015; 100: F102–5.Google Scholar
Dijxhoorn, MJ, Visser, GHV, Touwen, BC. Apgar score, meconium and acidemia at birth in small to gestational age infants born at term, and their relationship to neonatal neurological morbidity. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 873–9.Google Scholar
Grant, A, O’Brien, W, Joy, MT, et al. Cerebral palsy among children born during the Dublin randomised trial of intrapartum monitoring. Lancet 1989; 2: 1233–6.Google Scholar
Alfirevic, Z, Devane, D, Gyte, GM. Continuous cardiotocography (CTG) as a form of electronic fetal monitoring for fetal assessment during labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; CD006066.Google Scholar
Chauhan, SP, Hendrix, NW, Magann, EF, et al. Neonatal organ dysfunction among newborns at gestational age ≥ 34 weeks, and umbilical arterial pH < 7.00. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2005; 17: 261–8.Google Scholar
Goodwin, TM, Belai, I, Hernandez, P, et al. Asphyxial complications in the term newborn with severe umbilical acidemia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 167: 1506–12.Google Scholar
Belai, Y, Goodwin, TM, Durand, M, et al. Umbilical arteriovenous PO2 and PCO2 differences and neonatal morbidity in term infants with severe acidosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 178: 13–19.Google Scholar
Tekgul, H, Gauvreau, K, Soul, J, et al. The current etiologic profile and neurodevelopmental outcome of seizures in term newborn infants. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1270–80.Google Scholar
Bonifacio, SL, deVries, LS, Groenendaal, F. Impact of hypothermia on predictors of poor outcome: how do we decide to redirect care? Sem Fetal Neonatal Med 2015; 20: 122–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shetty, J. Neonatal seizures in hypoic-ischaemic encephalopathy: risks and benefits of anticonvulasant therapy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2015; 57: 40–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverstein, FS, Jensen, FE. Neonatal seizures. Ann Neurol 2007; 62: 112–20.Google Scholar
Miller, SP, Weiss, J, Barnwell, A, et al. Seizure-associated brain injury in term newborns with perinatal asphyxia. Neurology 2002; 58: 542–8.Google Scholar
Hankins, GDV, Koen, S, Gei, F, et al. Neonatal organ system injury in acute birth asphyxia sufficient to result in neonatal encephalopathy. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 688–91.Google Scholar
Shah, P, Riphagen, S, Beyene, J, et al. Multiorgan dysfunction in infants with post-asphyxial hypoxic–ischemic encephalopathy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2004; 89: F152–5.Google Scholar
Carter, BS, Haverkamp, AD, Merenstein, GB. The definition of acute perinatal asphyxia. Clin Perinatol 1993; 20: 287–304.Google Scholar
Clancy, RR, Sladky, JT, Rorke, LB. Hypoxic-ischemic spinal cord injury following perinatal asphyxia. Ann Neurol 1989; 25: 185–9.Google Scholar
Phelan, JP, Ahn, MO, Korst, L, et al. Intrapartum fetal asphyxial brain injury with absent multi-organ system dysfunction. J Matern Fetal Med 1998; 7: 19–22.Google Scholar
Trevisanuto, D, Picco, G, Golin, R, et al. Cardiac troponin I in asphyxiated neonates. Biol Neonate 2006; 89: 190–3.Google Scholar
Thorngren-Jerneck, K, Alling, C, Herbst, A, et al. S100 protein in serum as a prognostic marker for cerebral injury in term newborn infants with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatr Res 2004; 55: 406–12.Google Scholar
Douglas-Escobar, M, Yang, C, Bennett, J, et al. A pilot study of novel biomarkers in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatr Res 2010; 68: 531–6.Google Scholar
Ennen, CS, Huisman, TA, Savage, WJ, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein as a biomarker for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy treated with whole-body cooling. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011; 205: e1–7.Google Scholar
Massaro, AN, Chang, T, Kadom, N, et al. Biomarkers of brain injury in neonatal encephalopathy treated with hypothermia. J Pediatr 2012; 161: 434–40.Google Scholar
Massaro, AN, Jeromin, A, Kadom, N, et al. Serum biomarkers of MRI brain injury in neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy treated with whole-body hypothermia: a pilot study. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2013; 14: 310–7.Google Scholar
Chalak, LF, Sanchez, PJ, Adams-Huet, B, et al. Biomarkers for severity of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and outcomes in newborns receiving hypothermia therapy. J Pediatr 2014; 164: 468–74.Google Scholar
Ferriero, DM, Bonifacio, SL. The search continues for the elusive biomarkers of neonatal brain injury. J Pediatr 2014; 164: 438–9.Google Scholar
Bennet, L, Booth, L, Gunn, AJ. Potential biomarkers for hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2010; 15: 253–60.Google Scholar
Phelan, JP, Kirkendall, C, Korst, LM, et al. Nucleated red blood cell and platelet counts in asphyxiated neonates sufficient to result in permanent neurological impairment. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2007; 20: 377–80.Google Scholar
Thompson, CM, Puterman, As, Linley, LL, et al. The value of a scoring system for hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy in predicting neurodevelopmental outcome. Acta Paediatr 1997; 86: 757–61.Google Scholar
Committee on Fetus and Newborn, Papile, LA, Baley, JE, et al. Hypothermia and neonatal encephalopathy. Pediatrics 2014: 133: 1146–50.Google Scholar
Nanavati, T, Seemaladinne, N, Regier, M, et al. Can we predict functional outcome in neonates with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy by the combination of neuroimaging and electroencephalography? Pediatr Neonatol 2015; 56: 307–16.Google Scholar
Hayes, BC, Ryan, S, McGarvey, C, et al. Brain magnestic resonance imaging and outcome after hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2016; 29: 777–82.Google Scholar
Skranes, JH, Cowan, FM, Stiris, T, et al. Brain imaging in cooled encephalopathic neonates does not differ between four and 11 days after birth. Acta Paediatr 2015; 104: 752–8.Google Scholar
McIntyre, S, Blair, E, Badawi, N, et al. Antecedents of cerebral palsy and perinatal death in term and late preterm singletons. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122: 869–77.Google Scholar
Perlman, J, Davis, P, Wyllie, J, Kattwinkel, J. Therapeutic hypothermia following intrapartum hypoxia-ischemia: an advisory statement from the Neonatal Task Force of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Resuscitation 2010; 81: 1459–61.Google Scholar
Shankaran, S, Laptook, AR, Pappas, A, et al. Effect of depth and duration of cooling on deaths in the NICU among neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. JAMA 2014; 312: 2629–39.Google Scholar
Gunes, T, Ozturk, MA, Koklu, E, et al. Effect of allopurinol supplementation on nitric oxide levels in asphyxiated newborns. Pediatr Neurol 2007; 36: 17–24.Google Scholar
Glass, HC, Ferriero, DM. Treatment of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in newborns. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2007; 9: 414–23.Google Scholar
Zhu, C, Kang, W, Xu, F, et al. Erythropoietin improved neurologic outcomes in newborns with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatrics 2009; 124: e218–26.Google Scholar
Li, J, McDonald, CA, Fahey, MC, et al. Could cord blood cell therapy reduce preterm brain injury? Front Neurol 2014; 5: 200.Google Scholar
Cotton, MC, Murtha, AP, Goldberg, RN, et al., Feasibility of autologous cord blood cells for infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. J Pediatr 2014; 164: 973–9.Google Scholar
Shankaran, S, Laptook, AR, Pappas, A, et al. Effect of depth and duration of cooling on deaths in the NICU among neonates with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014; 312: 2629–39.Google Scholar
Rogers, EE, Bonifacio, SL, Glass, HC, et al. Erythropoietin and hypothermia for hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatr Neurol 2014; 51: 657–62.Google Scholar
Kasdorf, E, Perlman, JM. Strategies to prevent reperfusion injury to the brain following intrapartum hypoxia-ischemia. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2013; 18: 379–84.Google Scholar
Van Velthoven, CTJ, Gonzalez, F, Vexler, ZS, Ferriero, DM. Stem cells for neonatal stroke- the future is here. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8: 207.Google Scholar
Rangarajan, V, Juul, SE. Erythropoietin: emerging role of erythropoietin in neonatal neuroprotection. Pediatr Neurol 2014; 51: 481–8.Google Scholar
Shea, KL, Palanisamy, A. What can you do to protect the newborn brain? Curr Opin Anesthesiol 2015 (epub ahead of print).Google Scholar
Aly, H, Elmahdy, H, El-Dib, M, et al. Melatonin use for neuroprotection in perinatal asphyxia: a randomized, controlled pilot study. J Perinatol 2015; 35: 186–91.Google Scholar
Ellenberg, JH, Nelson, KB. The association of cerebral palsy with birth asphyxia: a definitional quaqmire. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 210–16.Google Scholar
Yeargin-Allsopp, M, Van Naarden Braun, K, Doernberg, NS, et al. Prevalence of cerebral palsy in 8-year-old children in three areas of the United States in 2002: a multisite collaboration. Pediatrics 2008; 121: 547–54.Google Scholar
Oskoui, M, Coutinho, F, Dykeman, J, et al. An update on the prevalence of cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 509–19.Google Scholar
Himmelmann, K, Hagberg, G, Beckung, E, et al. The changing panorama of cerebral palsy in Sweden. IX. Prevalence and origin in the birth year period 1995–1998. Acta Paediatr 2005; 94: 287–94.Google Scholar
Himmelmann, K. Epidemiology of cerebral palsy. In Handbook Clinical Neurology, vol. III: Pediatric Neurology Part I, d. Duke, OF, Lassonde, M, Sarnat, HB. New York: Elsivier, 2013: 163–7.Google Scholar
Himmelmann, K, Uvebrant, P. The panorama of cerebral palsy in Sweden. XI. Changing patterns in the birth-year period 2003–2006. Acta Paediatr 2014; 103: 618–24.Google Scholar
Bax, M, Tydeman, C, Flodmark, O. Clinical and MRI correlates of cerebral palsy: the European Cerebral Palsy Study. JAMA 2006; 296: 1602–8.Google Scholar
Wu, YW, Croen, LA, Shah, SJ, et al. Cerebral palsy in a term population: risk factors and neuroimaging findings. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 690–7.Google Scholar
Blair, EM, Nelson, KB. Fetal growth restriction and risk of cerebral palsy in singletons born after at least 35 weeks’ gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 520: e1–7.Google Scholar
Himmelmann, K, Hagberg, G, Wiklund, LM, et al. Dyskinetic cerebral palsy: a population-based study of children born between 1991 and 1998. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007; 49: 246–51.Google Scholar
Tollanes, MC, Wilcox, AJ, Lie, RT, Moster, D. Familial risk of cerebral palsy: population based cohort study. BMJ 2014; 349: 4294–301.Google Scholar
Hirvonen, M, Ojala, R, Korhonen, P, et al. Cerebral palsy among children born moderately and late preterm. Pediatrics 2014; 134: e1584–93.Google Scholar
Nelson, K. infection in pregnancy and cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 51: 252–5.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Penn, AA. Is infection a factor in neonatal encephalopathy? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015; 100: F8–10.Google Scholar
O’Leary, CM, Watson, L, D’Antoine, H, et al. Heavy maternal alcohol consumption and cerebral palsy in the offspring. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012; 54: 224–30.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB. Preventing cerebral palsy: paths not (yet) taken. Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 51: 765–6.Google Scholar
Garfinkle, J, Wintermark, P, Shevell, MI, et al. Cerebral palsy after neonatal encephalopathy: how much is preventable. J Pediatr 2015; 167: 58–63.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB. Can we prevent cerebral palsy? N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1765–9.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB. The epidemiology of cerebral palsy in term infants. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002; 8: 146–50.Google Scholar
Blair, E, Watson, L. Epidemiology of cerebral palsy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2006; 11: 117–25.Google Scholar
Clark, SL, Hankins, GDV. Temporal and demographic trends in cerebral palsy: fact and fiction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 188: 628–33.Google Scholar
Landon, MB, Haut, JC, Leveno, KJ, et al. Maternal and perinatal outcomes associated with a trial of labor after prior cesarean delivery. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 2581–9.Google Scholar
Hankins, GDV, Clark, SM, Munn, MB. Cesarean section on request at 39 weeks: impact on shoulder dystocia, fetal trauma, neonatal encephalopathy, and intrauterine demise. Semin Perinatol 2006; 30: 276–87.Google Scholar
Hagberg, B, Kyllerman, M. Epidemiology of mental retardation: a Swedish survey. Brain Dev 1983; 5: 441–9.Google Scholar
Robertson, CMT. Can hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) associated with term birth asphyxia lead to mental disability without cerebral palsy? Can J Neurol Sci 1999; 26: S36.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, FF, Miller, SP. Does perinatal asphyxia impair cognitive function without cerebral palsy? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2006; 91: F454–9.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×