Civil opposition in the Nationalist period is best understood in a dual context: the repression of one-party rule and the imperatives of national salvation. It was the manifestation of a continued quest for democracy and a response to a national crisis brought about by a combination of internal and external problems. This chapter is concerned with the domestic context. It will examine first the dictatorial nature of the Nationalist regime and then Sun Yat-sen's conception of political tutelage, his democratic thought, the legacy of his doctrine, and finally Chiang Kai-shek's personal dictatorship and his constitutional designs that drew much criticism from the opposition elite.

THE NATURE OF THE NANJING REGIME

The GMD came to power in 1928 after completing the Northern Expedition, the success of which was more political than military. The new Nanjing regime, however, was unable to free itself from the influence of the military that had brought it into existence. By 1931, Nanjing controlled less than one-third of China, its writ being restricted to a constellation of provinces in the lower Yangzi River – Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, and Fujian in varying degrees plus the financial center of Shanghai. In the first couple of years, Nanjing had to deal with the regional forces that had proclaimed their nominal allegiance – notably the Guangxi Clique led by Li Zongren, Bai Chongxi, and Li Jisen; Feng Yuxiang in the northwestern region of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Henan; and Yan Xishan in Shanxi.