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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2024

Shin-yi Peng
Shin-yi Peng
Affiliation:
National Tsing Hua University
Type
Chapter
Information
International Economic Law in the Era of Datafication , pp. 260 - 270
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

5G networks
5G Toolbox (EU), 53–54, 57
China’s “export” of, 45–46
as critical infrastructure, 50–52, 70–73, 239
resilience concerns. See cybersecurity regulation
future demands on, 15–16
‘universal service’ access to. See universal service policies
advertising and ranking
algorithmic transparency need. See algorithmic transparency regulation
Big Tech firms’ business model for, 163–164
domestic advertising restrictions, 98, 108
AI (artificial intelligence). See also algorithmic transparency regulation
cross-border data flows, reliance on, 198–199
cyber risks, 48, 221–223
semiconductors for, export controls, 73
Airbnb and Uber rulings (ECJ), 90–92
Alemanno, Alberto, 191
Algorithmic Justice Act (bill) (US), 167–169, 171, 173
algorithmic recommendations, 145–146, 179
algorithmic transparency regulation
in China, 182–183
as competition policy, 163–164, 241
disclosure duties, recipients distinguished, 167–171, 180
as ethical issue, 115, 164
explainability requirements, 171–174
five examples compared, 165–166, 174–176
regulatory targets, 166–167
trade secret rules of FTAs and, 176–181
Amazon, 116, 211, See also VSS (video streaming services) regulation
antitrust policies for platforms. See platforms, competition policies
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) Cross Border Privacy Rules, 214–217, 229
Apple, 147, 158
artificial intelligence. See AI (artificial intelligence)
Audiovisual Media Services Directive (EU), 128–131
Australia
Chinese tech firms, restrictions on, 54, 57
competition policies for platforms, 150
VSS (video streaming services) in, 125, 129
Belt and Road Initiative (China), 43–46
big data analytics, privacy implications, 206–209
big tech firms. See also names of firms
accountability for algorithms. See algorithmic transparency regulation
digital sovereignty threatened by, 100–101
lobbying by, 115–116, 121
multi-sided nature, 158
platforms. See platforms
universal service funds, calls for contributions to, 26, 239
Brazil – Taxation (WT/DS472/1), 29–34
broadband networks
as critical infrastructure, 50–52, 70–73, 239
resilience concerns. See cybersecurity regulation
future demands on, 15–16
network neutrality regulation, 39–43
“universal service” access to. See universal service policies
Burri, Mira, 137, 204
cable infrastructure demand, 14–15
Canada
cultural industry protections, 135–136
Huawei ban, 54
Montréal AI Declaration, 167–171, 173
social media regulation in, 117–118
Canada – Periodicals (WT/DS31/R), 133–134
Carr, Brendan, 26
Cashore, Benjamin, 212–213
Chander, Anupam, 237
China
algorithmic transparency regulation, 182–183
cybersecurity regulation, 54–57, 66, 223–224
data governance generally, 123, 161
Digital Silk Road initiative, 43–46
Google.com blocked by, 81–82
rare earth minerals, export controls, 62–63
source code disclosure requirements, 177
Western bans on Chinese tech firms, 47, 49–50, 52–54, 57, 72, 79–80
China – Publications and Audiovisual Products (WT/DS363/AB/R), 85–88
Claussen, Kathleen, 71
cloud computing services, 95
Cohen, Harlan Grant, 60
Cohen, Julie E., 2, 107
Communications Decency Act s.230 (US), 111–115
competition policies for platforms. See platforms, competition policies
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership. See CPTPP
content moderation. See speech regulation of platforms
COVID-19 pandemic, 15, 105–106
CPTPP (Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership)
Canadian cultural industry protection, side letter on, 136
cross-border data flows under, 65–67, 98, 139–140, 201–203, 240
good governance obligations, 185–186, 188–189
net neutrality rules, 41–42
preamble, 35
security exceptions, 67–68
source code non-disclosure provision, 176
special and differential treatment provisions, 38
critical infrastructure, 5G networks as, 50–52, 70–73, 239
resilience concerns. See cybersecurity regulation
cross-border data flows
domestic restrictions as trade barriers, 199–201
FTA provisions on, 65–69, 95–99, 139–140, 201–203, 240
holistic approach and hybrid structure, 228–230
overview of arguments, 241–242
privacy regulation of. See privacy regulation of cross-border data flows
security regulation of. See cybersecurity regulation
significance in datafied economy, 197–199
WTO multilateral initiatives on, 203–204
cross-subsidization of telecommunications services, 18–21
cultural policy promotion. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
cybersecurity measures, exception clauses for
data localization exceptions, 65–69, 201–203
GATT-type general exceptions, 59–60
GATT-type security exceptions, 62–65
security exceptions of new generation FTAs, 67–70
security-based exceptions generally, 57–59
TBT legitimate objectives, 60–62
cybersecurity regulation
5G networks as critical infrastructure, 50–52, 70–73, 239
cyber risks of datafication, 48–50, 221–223
data localization measures. See data localization measures
due process safeguards, 74–75
foreign tech firms, restrictions on, 47, 49–50, 52–55, 57, 79–80
multilateral trade rules and, 55–57, 233–237, 242
exception clauses. See cybersecurity measures, exception clauses for
multistakeholderism for, 228–230, 237
risk-based approach, 73–74
standardization, bottom-up approach, 223–225
standards proliferation chaos, 225–228
data capitalism and colonialism, 2–3, 144–148, 241
data flows. See cross-border data flows
data localization measures
exception clauses for, 65–69, 201–203
generally, 66–67, 199–201
JSI (Joint Statement Initiative) on E-commerce on, 203
datafication
concept and trend, 1–4
data capitalism and colonialism, 2–3, 144–148, 241
international economic law, interface with, 4, 243
network architecture of, 6, See also broadband networks; cross-border data flows; platforms
Delimatsis, Panagiotis, 101
DEPA (Digital Economy Partnership Agreement between Singapore, Chile and New Zealand), 34–36, 68
developing countries
competition enforcement limitations, 157
digital inclusion policies for. See digital inclusion
digital sovereignty concerns, 46
special and differential treatment for, 38
“digital divide,” data on, 13–15, 145
Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA), 34–36, 68
digital inclusion
DEPA digital inclusion module, 34–36
“digital divide,” data on, 13–15, 145
Digital Silk Road initiative (China) and, 43–46
future demands on digital networks, 15–16
JSI (Joint Statement Initiative) on E-commerce negotiations on, 36–39
network neutrality regulation, 39–43
overview of arguments, 46–47, 238–239, 242–243
public morals exceptions applied to policies, 29–34
telecommunications sector liberalization, impact of, 16–20
universal service policies. See universal service policies
digital platforms. See platforms
Digital Silk Road initiative (China), 43–46
digital sovereignty (right to regulate), 35, 46, 98–102
DMA (EU Digital Markets Act)
algorithmic transparency regulation, 166, 169, 171–173, 180
competition rules for platforms, 151–153, 159, 243
domestic regulation and market access commitments. See also platforms, domestic regulation
cross-border data flow restrictions, 199–201, 240
digital sovereignty (right to regulate), 35, 46, 98–102
JSI (Joint Statement Initiative) on Domestic Regulation, 102, 183–184, 192, 236
non-conforming measures schedules, 96–99, 240
platform regulation, 101, 105–107
quantity/quality dichotomy, 102–105
DSA (EU Digital Services Act)
algorithmic transparency regulation, 166, 169, 171–173, 180
on content moderation, 119–121, 240
platform definition, 92–93
RIA (regulatory impact assessment) of, 190–191
territorial application, 137–139
e-commerce
GATS application to, 82–84, 87–88
JSI on. See JSI (Joint Statement Initiative) on E-commerce (WTO)
platform delivery of. See platforms
ENISA (EU Agency for Cybersecurity), 224–225
EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement, 179
European Union
broadband connectivity targets, 23–24
cybersecurity policies, 53–54, 57
data governance policies, overview, 26, 150
DMA. See DMA (EU Digital Markets Act)
DSA. See DSA (EU Digital Services Act)
ENISA (EU Agency for Cybersecurity), 224–225
GDPR. See GDPR (EU General Data Protection Regulation)
Google Shopping case (European Commission), 147–148
information society services, ECJ rulings on, 90–92
Trans-Atlantic Data Privacy Framework, 203–204
VSS (video streaming services), local content rules, 128–131
EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, 34–35
EU-US Trade and Technology Council, 50
exception clauses
cultural exceptions, 134–136
for cybersecurity measures. See cybersecurity measures, exception clauses for
for data localization measures, 65–69, 201–203
for digital inclusion policies, 29–34
for source code non-disclosure provisions, 181
Facebook (Meta), 114–115, 144, 151, 158
facial recognition technology, 205–206
FDI, telecommunications sector liberalization impact, 17–20
Finland, broadband access as fundamental right, 22–23
Franklin, Ursula, 238
free speech via platforms. See speech regulation of platforms
FTAs (free trade agreements). See also names of FTAs
competition policies, 154, 161–162
cross-border data flows under, 65–69, 95–99, 139–140, 201–203, 240
cultural exceptions, 134–136
cybersecurity policies, conflicts with, 55–56
domestic regulation and. See domestic regulation and market access commitments
exception clauses. See exception clauses
good governance obligations. See platforms, GRPs (good regulatory practices)
network neutrality obligations, 41–43
non-conforming measures schedules, 96–99, 240
platform immunity rules, 115–118
source code and algorithm non-disclosure provisions, 176–181
fundamental rights approach to digital inclusion, 22–24
Gari, Gabriel, 191
Gasser, Urs, 230
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)
domestic regulation and. See domestic regulation and market access commitments
due process safeguards (Article VI:
1), 74–75, 183
evolutionary interpretation of, 85–90
general exceptions (Article XIV), 32–33, 59
on international standards, 235–237
Mode 1 commitments (cross-border supply), 79, 82–84, 138
Mode 3 commitments (commercial presence), 17–18, 79, 85, 103, 138, 238–239
progressive liberalization principle, 89
quantity/quality dichotomy of, 102–105
relevance concerns in datafication era, 4–6, 79–80, 243
specific commitments, classification problems, 80–82
technological neutrality principle, 82–84, 86, 90
telecommunications sector liberalization, 16–18, 160–161
trade in services definition, 17
GATS Telecom Reference Paper
on competition regulation, 155–157
cost-oriented rates rules interpreted, 27–29
political economy momentum for, 160
on universal service policies, 24–26
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)
due process safeguards (Article X:3(a)), 74–75
general exceptions (Article XX), 29–34, 59–60
security exceptions (Article XXI(b)), 62–65
GDPR (EU General Data Protection Regulation)
algorithmic transparency regulation, 166–168, 170–171, 173–174
Code of Conduct and certification scheme, 217–221
on de-identification, 211–212
general exceptions. See exception clauses
good faith standard, 58, 63–64
good governance obligations. See platforms, GRPs (good regulatory practices)
Google, 81–82, 123, 147–148, 163
GPA (Government Procurement Agreement), 56
Great Firewall of China, 54
Heath, J. Benton, 65
Howse, Robert, 29
Huawei
Digital Silk Road initiative and, 45
protectionist policies towards, 56
Western bans of, 47, 49–50, 53–54, 57, 72
human rights approach to digital inclusion, 22–24
India
Chinese mobile apps, restrictions on, 54
Twitter, judicial review action in, 122–123
Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF), 50, 186, 243
Industry 4.0, 15, 204, 221–222
information society services, ECJ rulings on, 90–92
Instagram, 114, 144
international standards, WTO rules on, 235–237
Internet streaming services. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
Internet use data, 13–15
IoT (Internet of Things)
cross-border data flows, reliance on, 198–199, 208
cyber risks, 48, 221–223
cybersecurity standards, 225–228
definition, 16
digital network demands, 15–16
IPEF (Indo-Pacific Economic Framework), 50, 186, 243
Japan
CPTPP market access commitments, 99
cybersecurity regulation, 230–233
GRPs (good regulatory practices) in, 188
VSS (video streaming services) in, 125
Japan-EU Economic Partnership Agreement, 179
Japan-United States Digital Trade Agreement, 116–117, 179
JSI (Joint Statement Initiative) on Domestic Regulation (WTO), 102, 183–184, 192, 236
JSI (Joint Statement Initiative) on E-commerce (WTO)
algorithms defined in, 177
on cross-border data flows, 203, 229
developing countries’ participation, 36–39
on platform regulation, 95, 116, 118
least developed countries
broadband connectivity, UN targets, 23–24
competition enforcement limitations, 157
digital inclusion policies for. See digital inclusion
digital sovereignty concerns, 46
FDI flows to, 19–20
Internet use in, 14
special and differential treatment for, 38
legitimate objectives (TBT), 60–62
local content requirements for VSS. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
local presence requirements for platforms, 139–141
localization of data. See data localization measures
machine-readable data, 1
media services regulation. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
messaging services, 39
Meta (Facebook), 114–115, 144, 151, 158
Metaverse/VR (virtual reality), 26, 137, 222–223, 240
Mexico – Telecom (WT/DS204/R), 27–29, 103–104, 156
Mexico, USMCA special provisions for, 38
Mishra, Neha, 179
Mitchell, Andrew D., 179
Montréal AI Declaration, 167–171, 173
most-favored-nation principle, 55, 80
Moyn, Samuel, 24
Mundie, Craig, 207
Musk, Elon, 111–112
Myanmar, data governance in, 123
national security policies. See cybersecurity regulation
national treatment principle, 55, 80
necessity test, 31–34, 58, 61–62, 183
Netflix, 15, 39–40, 211, See also VSS (video streaming services) regulation
Netherlands, Apple Dating app case, 147
network neutrality regulation, 39–43
New Zealand, CPTPP market access commitments, 99
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (US), 225, 230–233
non-discrimination obligations, 55–57, 132–134
OECD policies on platforms, 149–150
online streaming services. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
Pauwelyn, Joost, 104, 230
platformization, concept and trend, 1, 143–148
platforms, competition policies
algorithmic transparency regulation as, 163–164, 241
common elements of, 150–151
of DMA (EU Digital Markets Act), 151–153, 159, 243
domestic policies, limitations of, 148–149, 157
of FTAs (free trade agreements), 154, 161–162
regional initiatives, 149–150
VLOPs (very large online platforms), competition concerns, 143–148
WTO initiative. See platforms, trade and competition rules (potential)
platforms, domestic regulation
Chinese platforms, foreign restrictions, 53, 72, 80
competition policies, limitations of, 148–149, 157
for cultural policy promotion. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
fragmentation and overreach problems, 181–183
jurisdiction and law enforcement problems, 137–139
local presence conditions, 139–141
market access commitments and, 101, 105–107
speech regulation. See speech regulation of platforms
platforms, GRPs (good regulatory practices)
good governance obligations, overview, 183–187
good governance obligations, strength and breadth, 187–191
political support for, 191–194
platforms, multilateral trade rules
classification problems, 80–82, 90–93
competition focus. See platforms, trade and competition rules (potential)
cross-border data flows under FTAs, 65–69, 95–99, 139–140, 201–203, 240
future WTO work respecting, 93–95
GATS application under evolutionary interpretation, 85–90
GRPs promoted by. See platforms, GRPs (good regulatory practices)
platforms, trade and competition rules (potential)
challenges, 158–161
flexible modality option, 162–163
GATS Telecom Reference Paper as model, 155–157
general WTO approach to trade and competition, 153–155
soft law option, 161–162
privacy regulation of cross-border data flows
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) Rules, 214–217, 229
GDPR Code of Conduct and certification scheme, 217–221
informed consent and big data analytics, 206–209
multilateral trade rules and, 233–237
notice-and-consent mechanisms, general limitations, 205–206
private governance, scope for, 209–212
public-private partnership model, 212–214
Trans-Atlantic Data Privacy Framework (EU-US), 203–204
public morals exceptions, 29–34
Raustiala, Kal, 232
RCEP (Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership), 34–35, 68–70, 187–188
reasonableness test, 42–43
recommendations, algorithmic, 145–146, 179, See also algorithmic transparency regulation
RIAs (regulatory impact assessments). See platforms, GRPs (good regulatory practices)
right to regulate (digital sovereignty), 35, 46, 98–102
rural broadband connectivity targets, 23–24
Russia
Google fined in, 123
Ukraine invasion (2022- ), 49
Russia – Traffic in Transit (WT/DS512/R), 63–64
Schwartz, Paul, 237
security policies. See cybersecurity regulation
security-by-design paradigm, 222
Shaffer, Gregory, 20, 62, 72, 229
Singapore, Content Code for OTT TV, 138
smart cities, 48
smart manufacturing, 198
social media, content moderation. See speech regulation of platforms
Solove, Daniel J., 208
source code non-disclosure provisions of FTAs, 176–181
South Korea, VSS (video streaming services) in, 125
special and differential treatment, 38
speech regulation of platforms
algorithmic recommendations, regulation of. See algorithmic transparency regulation
as authoritarianism, 122–123
“censorship” dilemma outlined, 109–112
DSA (EU Digital Services Act) on content moderation, 119–121, 240
DSA-like regulations, 122
immunity rules of FTAs, 115–118
immunity rules of US Communications Decency Act s.230, 111–115
submarine cable infrastructure demand, 14–15
surveillance, technological, 2–3, 45–46, 146, 203–204, 206, See also privacy regulation of cross-border data flows
Taiwan
“broadband human rights” advocacy, 23
GATS Schedule of, 88
TBT (Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement), 56–57, 60–62, 75, 235–237
technological neutrality principle of GATS, 82–84, 86, 90
Telecom Reference Paper. See GATS Telecom Reference Paper
telecommunications sector liberalization, 16–20, 160
TikTok, 53, 72, 80
Trachtman, Joel P., 182
Trade and Cooperation Agreement (EU-UK), 34–35
Trade and Technology Council (EU-US), 50
trade secret rules for source code and algorithms, 176–181
Trans-Atlantic Data Privacy Framework (EU-US), 203–204
transborder data flows. See cross-border data flows
transparency of algorithms. See algorithmic transparency regulation
TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), 176–177
Trump, Donald, 111
Turkey, Internet Regulation, 138–139
Twitter, 111–112, 114, 122–123, 206
Uber and Airbnb rulings (ECJ), 90–92
UGC (user-generated content) regulation. See speech regulation of platforms
Ukraine, Russian invasion (2022- ), 49
United Kingdom
broadband network coverage, 23
RIA (regulatory impact assessment) guidance, 193
United Kingdom-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement, 34–35
United Nations, digital inclusion goals, 23–24, 30–31
United States
Algorithmic Justice Act (bill), 167–169, 171, 173
broadband connectivity targets, 24
Chinese tech firms, restrictions on, 47, 49–50, 52–53, 80
cybersecurity policies, 52–53, 71, 80
data governance generally, 161
Federal Trade Commission regulatory enforcement, 216–217, 231
GRPs (good regulatory practices) promotion, 186–187
network neutrality debates in, 40–41
NIST Cybersecurity Framework, 225, 231
semiconductors for, export controls, 73
social media regulation in, 111–115
Trans-Atlantic Data Privacy Framework, 203–204
universal service policies, 21–22
VSS (video streaming services) in, 124
United States – Gambling (WT/DS285/AB/R), 82–84, 104–105
United States – Steel and Aluminium Products (WT/DS544/R), 64–65
United States – Tuna II (WT/DS381/AB/R), 235–237
United States-EU Trade and Technology Council, 50
United States-Japan Digital Trade Agreement, 116–117, 179
United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement. See USMCA
universal service policies. See also digital inclusion
big tech firms’ proposed financial contribution, 26, 239
cost-oriented rates rules, whether compatible with, 27–29
domestic policies, 20–24
GATS Telecom Reference Paper on, 24–26
user-generated content regulation. See speech regulation of platforms
USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement)
competition concerns, 161–162
cross-border data flows under, 96, 98, 240
good governance obligations, 185–186, 189
Mexico, special provisions for, 38
net neutrality rules, 41
platform immunity rules, 117–118
risk-based approach to cybersecurity, 73
security exceptions, 67–68
source code non-disclosure provision, 177–179
VSS (video streaming services) regulation and, 131–132, 135
Vail, Theodore, 20
video streaming. See VSS (video streaming services) regulation
Vietnam
data governance in, 123
data localization measures, 66
VLOPs (very large online platforms), competition concerns, 143–148
VPN blocking in China, 54–55
VR (virtual reality)/Metaverse, 26, 137, 222–223, 240
VSS (video streaming services) regulation
cultural exceptions in FTAs, 134–136
culture v. trade debate, 109–110, 132–134, 136–137, 240–241
“domestic content” identification challenge, 130–132
local content requirements, 128–130, 141
non-discrimination obligations applied to, 132–134
traditional media regulation compared, 125–128
VSS proliferation data, 123–125
Warren, Elizabeth, 115–116
Weber, Rolf H., 3, 221, 237
WeChat, 54, 80
WhatsApp, 39, 82, 144, 151
zero quota effect, 103–106
Zuboff, Shoshana, 2

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  • Index
  • Shin-yi Peng, National Tsing Hua University
  • Book: International Economic Law in the Era of Datafication
  • Online publication: 28 March 2024
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009355025.013
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  • Index
  • Shin-yi Peng, National Tsing Hua University
  • Book: International Economic Law in the Era of Datafication
  • Online publication: 28 March 2024
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009355025.013
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  • Index
  • Shin-yi Peng, National Tsing Hua University
  • Book: International Economic Law in the Era of Datafication
  • Online publication: 28 March 2024
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009355025.013
Available formats
×