Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T19:21:31.251Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

22 - The Mongols and Europe

from Part VI - The Northern and Eastern Frontiers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2008

David Abulafia
By
Peter Jackson
David Abulafia
Affiliation:
University of Cambridge
Get access

Summary

THE RISE AND CHARACTER OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE

THE founder of the Mongol empire was a chieftain named Temüjin, who in the late twelfth century had become leader of one of a number of nomadic tribes which paid tribute to the Chin dynasty (1123–1234) in northern China. But within a few years the Mongols had subdued their pastoralist neighbours, notably the Tatars, the Kereyid (Kereit) and the Naiman; in 1206 Temüjin was proclaimed Chinggis Khan at an assembly (quriltai) representing the tribes of the eastern Eurasian steppe; and from 1211 he was at war with his former over-lord, the Chin emperor. By his death in 1227 his dominions extended from the Siberian forests to the Hindu Kush and from the Yellow Sea to the Caspian.

The Mongol empire rapidly evolved into more than just a confederacy of nomadic tribes as it incorporated semi-sedentarised and even settled elements: the Önggüd, inhabiting the intermediate zone between China and the steppe; the Khitan, semi-nomads in the region adjoining Manchuria; and the Uighurs, town-dwellers in the Tarim basin. The Khitan were remnants of an earlier imperial power which had reigned over Mongolia and part of northern China as the Liao dynasty until their overthrow by the Chin in 1125; under the form ‘Cathay’ (via the Arabic-Persian Khita), their name would later become current in the west for China as a whole. In their war against the Chin, the Mongols benefited from the assistance of Khitan officials and military units seeking to avenge the defeat of their forebears. The Uighurs too had been masters of an extensive steppe domain three centuries earlier, but had latterly been subject to the empire of the Qara (‘Black’) Khitan, founded by a fugitive Liao prince whose dynasty reigned over much of central Asia under the title of gür-khan (‘world ruler’). In 1218 the Qara Khitan empire, which had been taken over by one of Chinggis Khan’s enemies, the Naiman prince Küchlüg, was in turn incorporated in the Mongol dominions.

Keywords

Muslim KhwarazmshahLatin SyriaMongol empireeastern EuropeOgodeiNestorian Christianitynorthern China
Type
Chapter
Information
The New Cambridge Medieval History , pp. 701 - 719
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

,1274. Année charnière (1977), 1274. Année charnière: mutations et continuités, Colloques internationaux du CNRS, 558, Paris
Abel-Rémusat, J.P. (1822, 1824), ‘Mémoire sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens, et particulièrement des rois de France, avec les empereurs Mongols’, Mémoires de l’Institut royal de France, Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres 6: ; 7:Google Scholar
Allsen, T.T. (1987), Mongol imperialism: the policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia and the Islamic lands, 1251–1259, Berkeley and Los Angeles
Altaner, B. (1924), Die Dominikanermissionen des 13. Jahrhunderts, Breslauer Studien zur historischen Theologie, 3, Habelschwerdt
Altunian, G. (1911), Die Mongolen und ihre Eroberungen in kaukasischen und kleinasiatischen Ländern im XIII Jahrhundert, Historische Studien, 91, Berlin
Amitai-Preiss, R. (1995), Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk–Ilkhanid war, 1260–1281, Cambridge
Andreeva, M. (1926), ‘Priem tatarskikh poslov pri nikeiskom dvore’, in Sbornik statei posviashchennykh pamiati N.P. Kondakova, Prague Google Scholar
Ashtor, E. (1983), Levant trade in the later Middle Ages, Princeton
Balard, M. (1970), ‘Notes sur l’activité maritime des Génois de Caffa à la fin du XIIIe siècle’, in Mollat du Jourdain (1970)Google Scholar
Balard, M. (1977), ‘Les Génois en Asie centrale et en extrême-orient au XIVe siècle: un cas exceptionnel?’, in Mélanges Edouard Perroy, Paris Google Scholar
Baldwin, M.W. (1985), ‘Missions to the east in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries’, in Setton (1969–1990) V Google Scholar
Barthold, W. (1968), Turkestan down to the Mongol invasion, 3rd edn. by Bosworth, C.E. with additional chapter trans. by Mrs Minorsky, T., Gibb Memorial Series, n.s., 5, London
Bautier, R.-H. (1970), ‘Les relations économiques des occidentaux avec les pays d’orient au moyen âge: points de vue et documents’, in Mollat du Jourdain (1970)Google Scholar
Beckingham, C.F. (1966), The achievements of Prester John, London; repr. in his Between Islam and Christendom, London (1983)
Beckingham, C.F. and Hamilton, B. (eds.) (1996), Prester John, the Mongols and the Ten Lost Tribes, Aldershot
Bezzola, G.A. (1974), Die Mongolen in abendländischer Sicht (1220–1270): ein Beitrag zur Frage der Völkerbegegnungen, Berne and Munich
Bigalli, D. (1971), I Tartari e l’Apocalisse: ricerche sull’escatologia in Adamo Marsh e Ruggero Bacone, Florence
Boyle, J.A. (1963), ‘Kirakos of Ganjak on the Mongols’, Central Asiatic Journal 8: ; repr. in Boyle (1977)Google Scholar
Boyle, J.A. (1964), ‘The journey of Hetʿum I, king of Little Armenia, to the court of the Great Khan Möngke’, Central Asiatic Journal 9: : repr. in Boyle (1977)Google Scholar
Boyle, J.A. (1968), ‘Dynastic and political history of the Il-Khans’, in The Cambridge history of Iran, V: The Saljuq and Mongol periods, ed. Boyle, J.A., Cambridge Google Scholar
Boyle, J.A. (1976), ‘The Il-khans of Persia and the princes of Europe’, Central Asiatic Journal 20:Google Scholar
Boyle, J.A. (1977), The Mongol world empire, 1206–1370, London
Brǎtianu, G (1929), Recherches sur le commerce génois dans la Mer Noire au XIIIe siècle, Paris
Brincken, A.D. (1973), Die ‘Nationes Christianorum Orientalium’ im Verständnis der lateinischen Historiographie, Kölner Historische Abhandlungen, 22, Cologne
Brincken, A.D. (1975), ‘Die Mongolen im Weltbild der Lateiner um die Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des “Speculum Historiale” des Vincenz von Beauvais OP’, Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 57:Google Scholar
Budge, E.A.W. (trans.), The monks of Kûblâi Khân emperor of China or the histoy of the life and travels of Rabban Sâwmâ…, London (1928)
Cahen, C. (1969), ‘The Mongols and the Near East’, in Setton (1969–1990) IIGoogle Scholar
Cahen, G. (1924), ‘Les Mongols dans les Balkans’, Revue historique 146:Google Scholar
Canard, M. (1935–1945) ‘Un traité entre Byzance et l’Egypte au XIIIe siècle et les relations diplomatiques de Michel VIII Paléologue avec les sultans mamluks Baibars et Qalâʾûn’, in Mélanges offerts à Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Cairo Google Scholar
Carpini, Giovanni Pian , ‘Ystoria Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus’, ed. in Wyngaert, , Sinica franciscana, 1 ; trans. in Dawson, The Mongol mission
Chabot, J.B. (trans.), Histoire de Mar Jabalaha III et du moine Rabban çauma, Paris (1895)
Chabot, J.B. (1896), ‘Notes sur les relations entre le roi Arghoun et l’Occident’, Revue de l’Orient latin 2:Google Scholar
Connell, C.W. (1973), ‘Western views of the origin of the “Tartars”’, Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 3:Google Scholar
Critchley, J. (1992), Marco Polo’s book, Aldershot
Dauvillier, J. (1983), Histoire et institutions des églises orientales au moyen âge, London
Dawson, C. (trans.), The Mongol mission: narratives and letters of the Franciscan missionaries in Mongolia and China in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, London and New York (1955)
de Rachewiltz, I. (1971), Papal envoys to the Great Khans, London
de Rachewiltz, I. (1973), ‘Some remarks on the ideological foundations of Chingis Khan’s empire’, Papers on Far Eastern History 7:Google Scholar
de Rachewiltz, I. (1989), ‘The title Cinggis Qan re-examined’, in Heissig, W. and Sagaster, K. (eds.), Gedanke und Wirkung: Festschrift zum 90. Geburtstag von Nikolaus Poppe, Asiatische Forschungen, 108, Wiesbaden Google Scholar
de Rachewiltz, (1989)
Delaborde, H.F. (ed.), ‘Lettre des Chrétiens de Terre-Sainte à Charles d’’Anjou’, Revue de l’Orient latin 2 (1894)Google Scholar
Dörrie, H. (ed.), ‘Drei Texte zur Geschichte der Ungarn und Mongolen’, Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, phil.-hist. Klasse 6 (1956)Google Scholar
Ehrenkreutz, A. (1981), ‘Strategic implications of the slave trade between Genoa and Mamluk Egypt in the second half of the thirteenth century’, in Udovitch, A.L. (ed.), The Islamic Middle East 700–1900, Princeton Google Scholar
Fennell, J. (1983), The crisis of medieval Russia 1200–1304, London
Fiey, J.M. (1975), Chrétiens syriaques sous les Mongols (Il-Khanat de Perse, XIIIe–XIVe s.), Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, Subsidia, 44, Louvain
Franke, H. (1966), ‘Sino-western contacts under the Mongol empire’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 6:Google Scholar
Fried, J. (1986), ‘Auf der Suche nach der Wirklichkeit: die Mongolen und die euro-päische Erfahrungswissenschaft im 13. Jahrhundert’, Historische Zeitschrift 243:Google Scholar
Göckenjan, H. and Sweeney, J.R. (eds.), Der Mongolensturm: Berichte von Augenzeugen und Zeitgenossen 1235–1250, Graz, Vienna and Cologne (1985)
Golubovich, G. (ed.), Biblioteca bio-bibliografca della Terra Santa e dell’oriente francescano, 5 vols., Quaracchi (1906–1923)
Gombos, A.F. (ed.), Catalogus fontium historiae Hungaricae, 3 vols., Budapest (1937–1938)
Graf, A. (1941), ‘Die Tataren im Spiegel der byzantinischen Literatur’, in Scheiber, A. (ed.), Jubilee volume in honour of Prof Bernhard Heller, Budapest Google Scholar
Guzman, G.G. (1971), ‘Simon of Saint-Quentin and the Dominican mission to the Mongol Baiju: a reappraisal’, Speculum 46:Google Scholar
Guzman, G.G. (1972), ‘Simon of Saint-Quentin as historian of the Mongols and Seljuk Turks’, Medievalia et humanistica 3:Google Scholar
Haeger, J.W. (1978), ‘Marco Polo in China: problems with internal evidence’, Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies 14 Google Scholar
Halecki, O. (1966), ‘Diplomatie pontificale et activité missionnaire en Asie au XIII–XIVe siècles’, in Comité international des sciences historiques. XIIe congrès international Vienne 1965. Rapports, Vienna, IIGoogle Scholar
Halperin, C.J. (1983), ‘Russia in the Mongol empire in comparative perspective’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 43 Google Scholar
Haluscynskyj, T.T. and Wojnar, M. (eds.), Acta Innocentii PP. IV (1243–1254), Vatican City (1962)
Hamilton, B. (1985), ‘Prester John and the Three Kings of Cologne’, in Harting, H. Mayr and Moore, R.I. (eds.), Studies in medieval history presented to R.H.C. Davis, London Google Scholar
,Hayton of Gorighos, ‘La flor des estoires de la terre d’orient’, in Recueil des historiens des croisades: documents arméniens, II, Paris (1906)
Hebraeus, Bar , The chronography of Gregoy Abü’l-Faraj, … commonly known as Bar Hebraeus, ed. and trans. Budge, E.A. Wallis, 2 vols., London and Oxford (1932)
Heers, J. (1984), ‘De Marco Polo à Christophe Colomb: comment lire le Devisement du monde?’, Journal of Medieval History 10:Google Scholar
Heyd, W. (1885–1886) Histoire du commerce du Levant au moyen âge, trans. Raynaud, F., 2 vols., Leipzig
Humphreys, R.S. (1977), From Saladin to the Mongols: the Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260, New York
Jackson, P. and Morgan, D. (trans.), The mission of Friar William of Rubruck: his journey to the court of the Great Khan Möngke (1253–1255), Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, 173, London (1990)
Jackson, P. (1982), ‘Abaqa’, Encyclopaedia Iranica.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1984), ‘Ahmad-Takūdār’, Encyclopaedia Iranica.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1986), ‘Arḡūn’, Encyclopaedia Iranica.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1989), ‘B¯ayjū’, Encyclopaedia Iranica.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1998), ‘Marco Polo and his “Travels”’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 61:Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1978), ‘The dissolution of the Mongol empire’, Central Asiatic Journal 22 Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1980), ‘The crisis in the Holy Land in 1260’, English Historical Review 95 Google Scholar
Jackson, P. (1991), ‘The crusade against the Mongols (1241)’, Journal of Economic History 42 Google Scholar
,Kirakos of Gantsak, Patmut ῾iwn Hayoc ῾, trans. Khanlarian, L.A., Istoriia Armenii, Moscow (1976)Google Scholar
Klopprogge, A. (1993), Ursprung und Ausprägung des abendländischen Mongolenbildes im 13. Jahrhundert: ein Versuch zur Ideengeschichte des Mittelalters, Wiesbaden
Laurent, J.C.M. (ed.), Peregrinatores medii aevi quatuor, Leipzig (1873)
Lederer, E. (1953), ‘Tatarskoe nashestvie na Vengriiu v sviazi s mezhdunarodnymi sobytiiami epokhy’, Acta historica academiae scientiarum hungaricae 2:Google Scholar
Lockhart, L. (1968), ‘The relations between Edward I and Edward II of England and the Mongol Il-khans of Persia’, Iran 6:Google Scholar
Lopez, R.S. (1970), ‘Les méthodes commerciales des marchands occidentaux en Asie du XIe au XIVe siècle’, in Mollat du Jourdain (1970)Google Scholar
Luard, H.R. (ed.), ‘Annales monasterii de Burton’, in Annales Monastici, 1, Rolls Series, London (1864)Google Scholar
Lupprian, K.E. (ed.), Die Beziehungen der Päpste zu islamischen und mongolischen Herrschern im 13. Jahrhundert anhand ihres Briefwechsels, Vatican City (1981)
Meyvaert, P. (ed.), ‘An unknown letter of Hulagu, Il-Khan of Persia, to King Louis IX of France’, Viator II (1980)Google Scholar
MollatJourdain, M. (ed.) (1970), Sociétés et compagnies du commerce en orient et dans l’océan indien, Paris
Montecorvino, Giovanni di , ‘Epistolae’, ed. in Wyngaert, , Sinica franciscana, I
Monti, G.M. (1936), ‘I re angioini e i Tartari’, in Monti, G.M., Da Carlo I a Roberto di Angió, Trani Google Scholar
Morgan, D.O. (1989), ‘The Mongols and the eastern Mediterranean’, Mediterranean Historical Review 4: ; also in Arbel, B., et al. (eds.), Latins, Muslims and Greeks in the eastern Mediterranean after 1204, London and Tel Aviv Google Scholar
Morgan, D.O. (1985), ‘The Mongols in Syria, 1260–1300’, in Edbury, P.W. (ed.), Crusade and settlement, Cardiff Google Scholar
Morgan, D.O. (1986), The Mongols, Oxford
Mostaert, A. and Cleaves, F.W. (ed. and trans.), Les lettres de 1289 et 1305 des ilkhan Aryun et öljei tü à Philippe le Bel, Cambridge, MA
Moule, A.C. (1930), Christians in China before the year 1550, Cambridge
Muldoon, J.P. (1979), Popes, lawyers and infidels, Liverpool
Müller, R. (1988), ‘Jean de Montecorvino (1247–1328) – premier archevêque de Chine’, Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft 44:Google Scholar
Olschki, L. (1960), Marco Polo’s Asia, Berkeley and Los Angeles
Önnerfors, A. (ed.), Hystoria Tartarorum C. de Bridia monachi, Berlin (1967)
Origo, I. (1955), ‘The domestic enemy: the eastern slaves in Tuscany in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries’, Speculum 30:Google Scholar
Paris, Matthew , Chronica majora, ed. Luard, H.R., 7 vols., Rolls Series, London (1872–1883)
Pashuto, V.T. (1977), ‘Mongol′ skii pokhod v glub′ Evropy’, in Tikhvinskii, S.L. (ed.), Tataro-Mongoly v Azii i Evrope: sbornik statei, 2nd edn, Moscow Google Scholar
Pelliot, P. (1923, 1924 and 1932), ‘Les Mongols et la papauté’, Revue de l’orient chrétien 23: ; 24: ; 28:Google Scholar
Pelliot, P. (1959–1973) Notes on Marco Polo, 3 vols., Paris
Pelliot, P. (1973), Recherches sur les chrétiens d’Asie centrale et d’extrême orient, Paris
Perfecky, G.A. (trans.), The Hypatian Codex, part two: the Galician-Volynian Chronicle, Munich (1973)
Petech, L. (1962), ‘Les marchands italiens dans l’empire mongol’, Journal asiatique 250:Google Scholar
Phillips, J.R.S. (1998), The medieval expansion of Europe, 2nd edn, Oxford
Polo, Marco , Le divisament dou monde (Latin text in MS Z), ed. and trans. Moule, A.C. and Pelliot, P., Marco Polo: the description of the world, 2 vols., London (1938); trans. Ricci, A., The travels of Marco Polo, London (1931)
Polonus, Benedictus , ‘Relatio’, ed. in Wyngaert, , Sinica franciscana, I ; trans. in Dawson, The Mongol mission
Ratchnevsky, P. (1991), Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, trans. Haining, T.N., Oxford
Richard, J. (1949), ‘Le début des relations entre la papauté et les Mongols de Perse’, Journal asiatique 237: : repr. in Richard (1977d)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1955), ‘L’extrême-orient légendaire au moyen âge: roi David et Prêtre Jean’, Annales d’Ethiopie 2: ; repr. in Richard (1976)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1957), ‘La mission en occident de Rabban çauma et l’union des églises’, in XII° Convegno Volta. Oriente e occidente nel medio evo, Rome ; repr. in Richard (1976)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1973), ‘Ultimatums mongols et lettres apocryphes: l’occident et les motifs de guerre des Tartares’, Central Asiatic Journal 17: ; repr. in Richard (1976)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1976), Orient et occident au moyen âge (XIIe–XVe s.): contacts et relations, London
Richard, J. (1977a), ‘Les Mongols et l’occident: deux siècles de contacts’, in 1274. Année charnière (1977); repr. in Richard (1983)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1977b), ‘Chrétiens et Mongols au concile: la Papauté et les Mongols de Perse dans la seconde moitié du XIIIe siècle’, in 1274. Année charnière (1977); repr. in Richard (1983)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1977c), La papauté et les missions d’orient au moyen âge (XIIIe–XVe siècles), Rome
Richard, J. (1977d), Les relations entre l’orient et l’occident au moyen âge: études et documents, London
Richard, J. (1979a), ‘Les causes des victoires mongoles d’après les historiens occidentaux du XIIIe siècle’, Central Asiatic Journal 23: ; repr. in Richard (1983)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1979b), ‘Une ambassade mongole à Paris en 1262’, Journal des savants: 295–303; repr. in Richard (1983)Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1983), Croisés, missionnaires et voyageurs: les perspectives orientales du monde latin médiéval, London
Richard, J. (1986), ‘La lettre du Connétable Smbat et les rapports entre Chrétiens et Mongols au milieu du XIIIème siècle’, in Kouymjian, D. (ed.), Armenian studies in memoriam Haïg Berbérian, Lisbon Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1994), ‘A propos de la mission de Baudouin de Hainaut: l’empire latin de Constantinople et les Mongols’, Journal des Savants:Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1968), ‘European navigation in the Indian Ocean and Caspian Sea (12th–15 th centuries)’, Iran 6 Google Scholar
Richard, J. (1989), ‘La croisade de 1270, premier “passage général”?’, Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres Google Scholar
Roberg, B. (1973), ‘Die Tartaren auf dem 2. Konzil von Lyon’, Annuarium historiae conciliorum 5 Google Scholar
,Roger of Varad, ‘Carmen miserabile’, ed. Juhász, L., in Szentpétery, Scriptores rerum Hungaricarum, II
Rossabi, M. (1988), Khubilai Khan: his life and times, Berkeley and Los Angeles
Rossabi, M. (1992), Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the first journey from China to the West, Tokyo and New York
Rubruck, Guillaume , ‘Itinerarium’, ed. in Wyngaert, , Sinica franciscana, 1 ; trans. in Jackson, and , Morgan , The mission of Friar William
Rudolf, K. (1977), ‘Die Tataren 1241/2. Nachrichten und Wiedergabe: Korrespondenz und Historiographie’, Römische Historische Mitteilungen 19:Google Scholar
Saint-Quentin, Simon , Historia Tartarorum, ed. Richard, J., Simon de Saint-Quentin: histoire des Tartares, Documents relatifs à l’histoire des croisades, 8, Paris (1965)Google Scholar
Saunders, J.J. (1969), ‘Matthew Paris and the Mongols’, in Sandquist, T.A. and Powicke, M.R. (eds.), Essays in medieval histoy presented to Bertie Wilkinson, Toronto Google Scholar
Saunders, J.J. (1971), The histoy of the Mongol conquests, London
Saunders, J.J. (1977), ‘The Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut and the restoration of the Greek empire’, in J.J. Saunders, Muslims and Mongols, ed. Rice, G.W., Canterbury, NZ Google Scholar
Schein, S. (1979), ‘ Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300: the genesis of a non-event’, English Historical Review 94 Google Scholar
Schmieder, F. (1994), Europa und die Fremden: die Mongolen im Urteil des Abendlandes vom 13. bis in das 15. Jahrhundert, Sigmaringen
Schmilewski, U. (ed.) (1992), Wahlstatt 1241. Beiträge zur Mongolenschlacht bei Liegnitz und zu ihren Nachwirkungen, Würzburg
Setton, K.M. (general ed.) (1969–1990) A history of the crusades, 6 vols. (I and II, 2nd edn), Madison, WI
Sinor, D. (1952), ‘Un voyageur du treizième siècle: le Dominicain Julien de Hongrie’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 14: ; repr. in Sinor (1977b)Google Scholar
Sinor, D. (1956), ‘Les relations entre les Mongols et l’Europe jusqu’à la mort d’Arghoun et de Béla IV’, Journal of World History 3: ; repr. in Sinor (1977b)Google Scholar
Sinor, D. (1972a), ‘Horse and pasture in Inner Asian history’, Oriens extremus 19: ; repr. in Sinor (1977b)Google Scholar
Sinor, D. (1972b), ‘The mysterious “Talu Sea” in Öljeitü’s letter to Philip the Fair of France’, in Analecta Mongolica dedicated to Owen Lattimore, Bloomington, IN ; repr. in Sinor (1977b)Google Scholar
Sinor, D. (1975), ‘The Mongols and western Europe’, in Setton (1969–1990) in ; repr. in Sinor (1977b)Google Scholar
Sinor, D. (1977a), ‘Le Mongol vu par l’occident’, in 1274. Année charnière (1977)Google Scholar
Sinor, D. (1977b), Inner Asia and its contacts with medieval Europe, London
Smith, J.M. (1984), ‘ʿAyn Jalut: Mamluk success or Mongol failure?’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 44:Google Scholar
Soranzo, G. (1930), Il papato, l’Europa cristiana e i Tartari: un secolo di penetrazione occidentale in Asia, Milan
Spalatensis, Thomas , ‘Historia pontificum Salonitanorum atque Spalatensium’, in Gombos, Catalogus, III
Spuler, B. (1965), Die Goldene Horde: die Mongolen in Rußland 1223–1502, 2nd edn, Wiesbaden
Spuler, B. (1985), Die Mongolen in Iran: Politik, Verwaltung und Kultur der Ilchanzeit 1220–1350, 4th edn, Leiden
Strakosch-Graßmann, G (1893), Der Einfall der Mongolen in Mitteleuropa in den Jahren 1241 und 1242. Innsbruck
Sweeney, J. (1982), ‘Thomas of Spalato and the Mongols: a thirteenth-century Dalmatian view of Mongol customs’, Florilegium 4:Google Scholar
Szcześniak, B. (1956), ‘The mission of Giovanni di Piano Carpini and Benedict the Pole of Vratislavia to Halicz’, Journal of Economic History 7 Google Scholar
Szentpétery, E. (ed.), Scriptores rerum Hungaricarum, 2 vols., Budapest (1938)
Theiner, A. (ed.), Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia, 2 vols., Rome (1859–1860)
Troll, C.W. (1966, 1967), ‘Die Chinamission im Mittelalter’, Franziskanische Studien 48: ; 49:Google Scholar
,Vardan of Arewel’, Hawak ῾umn Patmut ῾ean, trans. Thomson, R.W., ‘The historical compilation of Vardan Arewelc ῾i’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 43 (1989)Google Scholar
Voegelin, E. (1941), ‘The Mongol orders of submission to European powers, 1245–1255’, Byzantion 15:Google Scholar
Wood, F. (1995), Did Marco Polo go to China? London
Wyngaert, A. (ed.), Sinica franciscana, I: Itinera et relationes fratrum minorum saeculi XIII et XIV, Quaracchi and Florence (1929)
Yule, Henry and Cordier, H. (eds.), Cathay and the way thither, new edn, Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, 33, 37, 38, 41, London (1913–1916)
Zakirov, S. (1966), Diplomaticheskie otnosheniia Zolotoi Ordy s Egiptom, Moscow
Zarncke, F. (1879–1880) ‘Der Priester Johannes’, Abhandlungen der phil Klasse der sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig 7: : 8:Google Scholar
Zatko, J.J. (1957), ‘The Union of Suzdal, 1222–1252)’, Journal of Economic History 8 Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×