Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T00:45:24.288Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

15 - Lemur Hunting in Madagascar’s Present and Past

The Case of Pachylemur

from Part III - Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 August 2022

By
Natalie Vasey  and
Laurie R. Godfrey
Edited by
Bernardo Urbani ,
Dionisios Youlatos  and
Andrzej T. Antczak
Bernardo Urbani
Affiliation:
Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research
Dionisios Youlatos
Affiliation:
Aristotle University, Thessaloniki
Andrzej T. Antczak
Affiliation:
Universiteit Leiden
Get access

Summary

Pachylemur is a large extinct lemur once widespread on Madagascar that survived in pockets until at least 500 years ago. The role of humans as agents of megafaunal extinction on Madagascar is heavily debated. Here we evaluate human impacts drawing from research on lemur hunting today combined with evidence from Madagascar’s oral history as well as its archaeological and paleontological records. Living lemurs are hunted throughout Madagascar, primarily for subsistence but also for commercial trade. Wildlife consumption is driven primarily by poverty and resultant food insecurity. Protected status, wildlife consumption taboos, and broad preference for domestic meats appear insufficient to buffer most lemur taxa from extinction at current harvest rates in the Makira region, if not elsewhere. Single-factor explanations for megafaunal extinction, such as rapid overkill or climate change, are not viable. There was long temporal overlap for Pachylemur and humans on Madagascar. There was no island-wide drought when the megafauna began to crash around 1,200 years ago; some parts of Madagascar were unusually wet while others were unusually dry. Stable isotope (δ15N) values for radiocarbon-dated Pachylemur bones also show no evidence that aridification contributed to its demise. Butchered bones of Pachylemur from the paleontological site Tsirave spike in frequency just over 1,000 years ago, indicative of sustained exploitation over a ~100-year period. Pachylemur shared many traits with its closest living relative, variegated lemurs (Varecia), including frugivory. Oral histories of an animal presumed to be Pachylemur indicate it dwelt in the largest trees in the forest, was active at twilight, and exhibited highly aggressive antipredator behavior. Like Varecia, Pachylemur was likely dependent on large, patchily distributed trees for fruit, and possibly also for reproduction (e.g. to nest and stash non-clinging young), making it especially vulnerable to habitat degradation. We thus conclude that both habitat degradation and hunting played a role in the extinction of Pachylemur.

Key words

Bushmeat, Lemurs, Extinction, Pachylemur, Varecia, Subfossils

Type
Chapter
Information
World Archaeoprimatology
Interconnections of Humans and Nonhuman Primates in the Past
 , pp. 393 - 416
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, A., Clark, G., Haberle, S., et al. (2018). New evidence of megafaunal bone damage indicates late colonization of Madagascar. PLoS ONE, 13(10), e0204368.Google Scholar
Baden, A. L., Brenneman, R. A., & Louis, E. E. Jr. (2008). Morphometrics of wild black-and-white ruffed lemurs [Varecia variegata, Kerr 1972]. American Journal of Primatology, 70, 913–926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baden, A. L., Holmes, S. M., Johnson, S. E., Engberg, S. E., Louis, E. E. Jr., & Bradley, B. J. (2014). Species-level view of population structure and gene flow for a Critically Endangered primate (Varecia variegata). Ecology and Evolution, 4, 2675–2692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balko, E. A. & Underwood, H. B. (2005). Effects of forest structure and composition on food availability for Varecia variegata at Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology, 66, 45–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-On, Y. M., Phillips, R., & Milo, R. (2018). The biomass distribution on earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115 (25), 6506–6511.Google Scholar
Battistini, R., Vérin, P., & Rason, R. (1963). Le site archéologique de Talaky. Annales Malgaches, 1, 111–142.Google Scholar
Borgerson, C. (2015). The effects of illegal hunting and habitat on two sympatric endangered primates. International Journal of Primatology, 36, 74–93.Google Scholar
Borgerson, C. (2016). Optimizing conservation policy: The importance of seasonal variation in hunting and meat consumption on the Masoala Peninsula Madagascar. Oryx, 50(3), 405–418.Google Scholar
Borgerson, C., McKean, M. A. Sutherland, M. R., & Godfrey, L. R. (2016). Who hunts lemurs and why they hunt them. Biological Conservation, 197, 124–130.Google Scholar
Borgerson, C., Vonona, M. A., Vonona, T., et al. (2018). An evaluation of the interactions among household economies, human health, and wildlife hunting in the Lac Alaotra wetland complex of Madagascar. Madagascar Conservation & Development, 13(1), 25–36.Google Scholar
Bray, J., Samson, D. R., & Nunn, C. L. (2017). Activity patterns in seven captive lemur species: Evidence of cathemerality in Varecia and Lemur catta? American Journal of Primatology, 79, e22648.Google Scholar
Brook, C. E., Herrera, J., Borgerson, C., et al. (2019). Population viability and bushmeat harvest sustainability for Madagascar lemurs. Conservation Biology, 33(1), 99–111.Google Scholar
Burney, D. A., & Ramilisonina, . (1998). The kilopilopitsofy, kidoky, and bokyboky: Accounts of strange animals from Belo-sur-mer, Madagascar, and the megafaunal “extinction window”. American Anthropologist, 100(4), 957–966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burney, D. A., Andriamialison, H., Andrianaivoarivelo, R. A., et al. (2020). Subfossil lemur discoveries from the Beanka Protected Area in western Madagascar. Quaternary Research, 93, 187–203.Google Scholar
Burns, S. J., Godfrey, L. R, Faina, P., et al. (2016). Rapid human-induced landscape transformation in Madagascar at the end of the first millennium of the Common Era. Quaternary Science Reviews, 134, 92–99.Google Scholar
Charles-Dominique, P. (1975). Ecology and Behavior of Nocturnal Prosimians. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Crowley, B. E. (2010). A refined chronology of prehistoric Madagascar and the demise of the megafauna. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 2591–2603.Google Scholar
Crowley, B. E., Godfrey, L. R., Bankoff, R. J., et al. (2017). Island-wide aridity did not trigger recent megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar. Ecography, 40, 901–912.Google Scholar
Curtis, D. J., & Rasmussen, M. A. (2006). The evolution of cathemerality in primates and other mammals: A comparative and chronoecological approach. Folia Primatologica, 77, 178–193.Google Scholar
Dandouau, A. (1922). Contes Populaires des Sakalava et des Tsimihety de la Région d’Analava. Alger: Jules Carbonel, 299–301.Google Scholar
Dawson, R. R., Burns, S. J., McGee, D., et al. (2020). Using speleothem fluid inclusion isotopic composition to reconstruct the temperature and hydrologic record of the last 60,000 years in southwestern Madagascar. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 52(6), 355941.Google Scholar
Decary, R. (1939). La chasse et le piégage chez les indigènes de Madagascar. Journal des Africanistes, IX, 3–41.Google Scholar
Dew, J. L., & Wright, P. C. (1998). Frugivory and seed dispersal by primates in Madagascar’s eastern rainforest. Biotropica, 30, 425–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewar, R. E., & Rakotovololona, S. (1992). La chasse aux subfossiles: les preuves de XIème siècle. Taloha, 11, 4–15.Google Scholar
Douglass, K., Antonites, A. R., Quintana Morales, , et al.. (2018). Multi-analytical approach to zooarchaeological assemblages elucidates Late Holocene coastal lifeways in southwest Madagascar. Quaternary International, 471, 111–131.Google Scholar
Douglass, K., Hixon, S., Wright, H. T., et al. (2019a). A critical review of radiocarbon dates clarifies the human settlement of Madagascar. Quaternary Science Reviews, 221, 105878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105878Google Scholar
Douglass, K., Quintana Morales, E., Manahira, G., et al. (2019b). Toward a just and inclusive environmental archaeology of southwest Madagascar. Journal of Social Archaeology, 19, 307–332.Google Scholar
Duckworth, J. W., Evans, M. I., Hawkins, A. F. A., Safford, R. J., & Wilkinson, R. J. (1995). The lemurs of Marojejy Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar: A status overview with notes on ecology and threats. International Journal of Primatology, 16, 545–559.Google Scholar
Dutton, C. J., Junge, R. E., & Louis, E. E. Jr. (2008). Biomedical evaluation of free-ranging red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra) within the Masoala National Park, Madagascar. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 39, 76–85.Google Scholar
Eppley, T. M., Santini, L., Tinsman, J. C., & Donati, G. (2020). Do functional traits offset the effects of fragmentation? The case of large-bodied diurnal lemur species. American Journal of Primatology, 82, e23104.Google Scholar
Faina, P., Burns, S. J., Godfrey, L. R., et al. (2021). Comparing the paleoclimates of northwestern and southwestern Madagascar during the late Holocene: implications for the role of climate in megafaunal extinction. Malagasy Nature. 15, 108–127.Google Scholar
Federman, S., Dornburg, A., Daly, D. C., et al. (2016). Implications of lemuriform extinctions for the Malagasy flora. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(18), 5041–5046.Google Scholar
Flacourt, É. de. (1661). Chapter XXXIII. De la chasse et de la pêche. Histoire de la Grande Isle Madagascar. Paris: G. de Lvyne, 106–108.Google Scholar
Frid, A., & Dill, L. (2002). Human-caused disturbance stimuli as a form of predation risk. Conservation Ecology, 6(1), 11.Google Scholar
Garcia, G., & Goodman, S. M. (2003). Hunting of protected animals in the Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, north-western Madagascar. Oryx, 37, 115–118.Google Scholar
Gardner, C. J., & Davies, Z. G. (2014). Rural bushmeat consumption within multiple-use protected areas: qualitative evidence from southwest Madagascar. Human Ecology, 42(1), 21–34.Google Scholar
Gaynor, K. M., Hojnowski, C. E., Carter, N. H., & Brashares, J. S. (2018). The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science, 360, 1232–1235.Google Scholar
Glaw, F., Vences, M., & Randrianiaina, . (2008). Killed aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) exposed on the gallows in northeastern Madagascar. Lemur News, 13, 6–7.Google Scholar
Godfrey, L. R. (1986). The tale of the tsy-aomby-aomby, in which a legendary creature is revealed to be real. The Sciences, 26, 48–51.Google Scholar
Godfrey, L. R., & Jungers, W. L. (2003). The extinct sloth lemurs of Madagascar. Evolutionary Anthropology, 12, 252–263.Google Scholar
Godfrey, L. R., Semprebon, G. M., Jungers, W. L., Sutherland, M. R., Simons, E. L., & Solounias, N. (2004). Dental use wear in extinct lemurs: Evidence of diet and niche differentiation. Journal of Human Evolution, 47, 145–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godfrey, L. R., Jungers, W. L., Schwartz, G. T., & Irwin, M. T. (2008). Ghosts and orphans: Madagascar’s vanishing ecosystems. In Fleagle, J. G. and Gilbert, C. C., eds., Elwyn Simons: A Search for Origins. New York: Springer, pp. 361–395.Google Scholar
Godfrey, L. R., Winchester, J. M., King, S. J., Boyer, D. M., & Jernvall, J. (2012). Dental topography indicates ecological contraction of lemur communities. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 148(2), 215–227.Google Scholar
Godfrey, L. R., Scroxton, N., Crowley, B. E., et al. (2019). A new interpretation of Madagascar’s megafaunal decline: The “Subsistence Shift Hypothesis.” Journal of Human Evolution, 130, 126–140.Google Scholar
Gommery, D., Ramanivosoa, B., Faure, M., et al. (2011). Les plus anciennes traces d’activités anthropiques de Madagascar sur des ossements d’hippopotames subfossils d’Anjohibe (Province de Mahajanga). Comptes Rendus Palevol, 10, 271–278.Google Scholar
Golden, C. D. (2009). Bushmeat hunting and use in the Makira Forest north-eastern Madagascar: a conservation and livelihoods issue. Oryx, 43(3), 386–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golden, C. D., & Comaroff, J. (2015). Effects of social change on wildlife consumption taboos in northeastern Madagascar. Ecology and Society, 20(2), 41.Google Scholar
Golden, C. D., Fernald, L. C. H., Brashares, J. S., Rasolofoniaina, B. J. R., & Kremen, C. (2011). Benefits of wildlife consumption to child nutrition in a biodiversity hotspot. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 19653–19656.Google Scholar
Golden, C. D., Wrangham, R. W., & Brashares, J. S. (2013). Assessing the accuracy of interviewed recall for rare, highly seasonal events: the case of wildlife consumption in Madagascar. Animal Conservation, 16(6), 597–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golden, C. D., Bonds, M. H., Brashares, J. S., Rasolofoniaina, B. J. R., & Kremen, C. (2014). Economic valuation of subsistence harvest of wildlife in Madagascar. Conservation Biology, 28, 234–243.Google Scholar
Goodman, S. M., & Raselimanana, A. P. (2003). Hunting of wild animals by Sakalava of the Menabe region: a field report from Kirindy-Mite. Lemur News, 8, 4–6.Google Scholar
Halle, S. (2006). Polyphasic activity patterns in small mammals. Folia Primatologica, 77, 15–26.Google Scholar
Hansford, J., Wright, P. C., Rasoamiaramanana, A., et al. (2018). Early Holocene human presence in Madagascar evidenced by exploitation of avian megafauna. Science Advances, 4, eaat6925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansford, J. P, Wright, P. C., Pérez, V. R., Muldoon, K. M., Turvey, S. T., & Godfrey, L. R. (2020). Evidence for early human arrival in Madagascar is robust: A response to Mitchell. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 15, 596–602.Google Scholar
Hekkala, E. R., Rakotondratsima, M., & Vasey, N. (2007). Habitat and distribution of the ruffed lemur, Varecia, north of the Bay of Antongil in northeastern Madagascar. Primate Conservation, 22, 89–95.Google Scholar
Herrera, J. P., Wright, P. C., Lauterbur, E., Ratavonjanahary, L., & Taylor, L. L. (2011). The effects of habitat disturbance on lemurs at Ranomafana National Park. International Journal of Primatology, 32, 1091–1108.Google Scholar
Hixon, S. W., Smith, E. A. E., Crowley, B. E., et al. (2018). Nitrogen isotope (δ15N) patterns for amino acids in lemur bones are inconsistent with aridity driving megafaunal extinction in southwestern Madagascar. Journal of Quaternary Science, 33(8), 958–968. https://doi/10.1002/jqs.3073.Google Scholar
Holmes, S. M., Baden, A. L., Brenneman, R. A., Engberg, S. E., Louis, E. E. Jr., & Johnson, S. E. (2013). Patch size and isolation influence genetic patterns in black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata) populations. Conservation Genetics, 14, 615–624.Google Scholar
Janson, C. H. (1992). Evolutionary ecology of primate social structure. In Smith, E. A. & Winterhalder, B., eds., Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 95–130.Google Scholar
Jenkins, R. K. B., & Racey, P. A. (2008). Bats as bushmeat in Madagascar. Madagascar Conservation & Development, 3(1), 22–32.Google Scholar
Jenkins, R. K. B., Keane, A., Rakotoarivelo, A. R., et al. (2011). Analysis of patterns of bushmeat consumption reveals extensive exploitation of protected species in eastern Madagascar. PLoS One, 6(12), 12.Google Scholar
Jungers, W. L., Godfrey, L. R., Simons, E. L., Wunderlich, R. E., Richmond, B. G., & Chatrath, P. S. (2002). Ecomorphology and behavior of giant extinct lemurs from Madagascar. In Plavcan, J. M., Kay, R. F., Jungers, W. L. & van Schaik, C. P., eds., Reconstructing Behavior in the Primate Fossil Record. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 371–411.Google Scholar
Jungers, W. L., Demes, B., & Godfrey, L. R. (2008). How big were the “giant” extinct lemurs of Madagascar? In Fleagle, J. G., & Gilbert, C. C., eds., Elwyn Simons: A Search for Origins. New York: Springer, 343–360.Google Scholar
Koenig, P. (2005). Découverte d’une dépouille de Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) dans le nord-ouest de Madagascar. Lemur News, 10, 6–7.Google Scholar
Koenig, P., & Zavasoa, A. (2008). Et le massacre continue… Nouvelle découverte d’une dépouille d’Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) dans le nord de Madagascar. Lemur News, 13, 6Google Scholar
Lamberton, C. (1932). Verbal report on excavations at Tsirave, presented to the Académie Malgache on Jan 15, 1931. Bulletin de l’Academie Malgache, 14, 21–22.Google Scholar
Lehman, S. M., & Ratsimazafy, J. H. (2001). Biological assessment of the Fandriana Marolambo Corridor. Lemur News, 6, 8–9.Google Scholar
Lehman, S. M., Ratsimbazafy, J., Rajaonson, A., & Day, S. (2006). Decline of Propithecus diadema edwardsi and Varecia variegata variegata (Primates: Lemuridae) in south-east Madagascar. Oryx, 40, 108–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levi, T., Lu, F., Yu, D. W., & Mangel, M. (2011). The behavior and diet breadth of central-place foragers: An application to human hunters and neotropical game management. Evolutionary Ecology Research, 13, 1–15.Google Scholar
Lu, F. (2011). Patterns of indigenous resilience in the Amazon: A case study of Huaorani hunting in Ecuador. Journal of Ecological Anthropology, 14(1), 5–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lu, F., Gray, C., Bilsborrow, R. E., et al. (2010). Contrasting colonist and indigenous impacts on Amazonian forests. Conservation Biology, 24(3), 881–885.Google Scholar
Macedonia, J. M. (1993). Adaptation and phylogenetic constraints in the antipredator behavior of ringtailed and ruffed lemurs. In Kappeler, P. M. and Ganzhorn, J. U., eds., Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. New York: Plenum Press, 67–84.Google Scholar
MacPhee, R. D. E., & Burney, D. A. (1991). Dating of modified femora of extinct dwarf hippopotamus from southern Madagascar: Implications for constraining human colonization and vertebrate extinction events. Journal of Archaeological Science, 18, 695–706.Google Scholar
Mahé, J., & Sourdat, M. (1972). Sur l’extinction des vertébrés subfossiles et l’aridification du climat dans le Sud-Ouest de Madagascar. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 1, 295–309.Google Scholar
Martin, R. D. (1990). Primate Origins and Evolution: A Phylogenetic Reconstruction. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Martinez, B. (2008). Occurrence of bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur griseus occidentalis) in an agricultural landscape on the Masoala Peninsula. Lemur News, 13, 11–14.Google Scholar
Merson, S. D., Dollar, L. J., Johnson, P. J., & Macdonald, D. W. (2019). Poverty not taste drives the consumption of protected species in Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 28, 3669–3689.Google Scholar
Mitchell, P. (2020). Settling Madagascar: When did people first colonize the world’s largest island? The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 15, 576–595.Google Scholar
Muldoon, K. M. (2010). Paleoenvironment of Ankilitelo Cave (late Holocene, southwestern Madagascar): Implications for the extinction of giant lemurs. Journal of Human Evolution, 58(4), 338–352.Google Scholar
Moniac, N.,& Heitman, A. (2007). Lemur catta and hunting around Andohahela. Lemur News, 12, 11.Google Scholar
Patel, E. R., & Andrianandrasana, L. H. (2008). Low elevation silky sifakas (Propithecus candidus) in the Makira Conservation site at Andaparaty-Rabeson: Ranging, demography, and possible sympatry with red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra). Lemur News, 13, 18–22.Google Scholar
Patel, E. R., Marshall, J. J., & Parathian, H. (2005). Silky sifaka (Propithecus candidus) conservation education in northeastern Madagascar. Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 44, 8–11.Google Scholar
Perez, V. R., Godfrey, L. R., Nowak-Kemp, M., Burney, D. A., Ratsimbazafy, J., & Vasey, N. (2005). Evidence of early butchery of giant lemurs in Madagascar. Journal of Human Evolution, 49(6), 722–742.Google Scholar
Pierron, D., Hieske, M., Razindrazaka, H., et al. (2017). Genomic landscape of human diversity across Madagascar. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(32), E6498–E6506.Google Scholar
Radimilahy, C. M. (1998). Mahilaka: An Archaeological Investigation of an Early Town in Northwestern Madagascar. Uppsala: Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Radimilahy, C. M., & Crossland, Z. (2015). Situating Madagascar: Indian Ocean dynamics and archaeological histories. Azania – Archaeological Research in Africa, 5(4) SI, 495–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahantaharivao, N.J., Godfrey, L.R., Schwartz, G.T., et al. 2021. The growth and development of Pachylemur, a large-bodied lemurid. Malagasy Nature, 15, 141–158.Google Scholar
Rakotoarivelo, A. R., Razafimanahaka, J. H., Rabesihanaka, S., Jones, J. P. G., & Jenkins, R. K. B. (2011). Lois et réglements sur la faune sauvage à Madagascar: Progrès accomplis et besoins du futur. Madagascar Conservation and Development, 6, 37–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randriamanalina, M. H., Rafararano, L., Babary, L., & Laha, R. (2000). Rapport des enquêtes sur les chasses dans les Fokontany d’Ivondro, d’Erara et d’Etsilesy. Lemur News, 5, 11–14.Google Scholar
Randrianandrianina, F. H., Racey, P. A., & Jenkins, R. K. B. (2010). Hunting and consumption of mammals and birds by people in urban areas of western Madagascar. Oryx, 44(3), 411–415.Google Scholar
Randrianarisoa, P. M., Rasamison, A. A., & Rakotozafy, L. (1999). Les lémuriens de la région de Daraina: Forêt d’Analamazava, forêt de Bekaraoka et forêt de Sahaka. Lemur News, 4, 19–21.Google Scholar
Rasamuel, D. (1984). Alimentation et techniques anciennes dans le sud malgache à travers une fosse à ordures du XIe siècle. Etudes Océan Indien, 4(4), 81–109.Google Scholar
Razafimanahaka, J. H., Jenkins, R. K. B., Andriafidison, D., et al. (2012). Novel approach for quantifying illegal bushmeat consumption reveals high consumption of protected species in Madagascar. Oryx, 46(4), 584–592.Google Scholar
Rea, M. S., Figueiro, M. G., Jones, G. E., & Glander, K. E. (2014). Daily activity and light exposure levels for five species of lemurs at the Duke Lemur Center. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 153, 68–77.Google Scholar
Reuter, K. E., Randell, H., Wills, A. R., Janvier, T. E., Belalahy, T. R., & Sewall, B. J. (2016a). Capture, movement, trade, and consumption of mammals in Madagascar. PLoS ONE, 11(2), e0150305.Google Scholar
Reuter, K. E., Randell, H. R., Wills, A. R., & Sewall, B. J. (2016b). The consumption of wild meat in Madagascar: drivers, popularity and food security. Environmental Conservation, 1(3), 1–11.Google Scholar
Richard, A. F., & Dewar, R. E. (1991). Lemur ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 22, 145–175.Google Scholar
Scroxton, N., Burns, S. J., McGee, D., et al. (2017). Hemispherically in-phase precipitation variability over the last 1700 years in a Madagascar speleothem record. Quaternary Science Reviews, 164, 25–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scroxton, N., Burns, S. J., McGee, D., et al. (2019). Competing temperature and atmospheric circulation effects on southwest Madagascan rainfall during the last deglaciation. Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, 34(2), 275–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, E. L., & Meyers, D. M. (1991). Folklore and beliefs about the Aye aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis). Lemur News, 6, 11–16.Google Scholar
Tattersall, I. (2008). Avoiding commitment: cathemerality among primates. Biological Rhythm Research, 39( 3), 213–228.Google Scholar
Vasey, N. (2000). Niche separation in Varecia variegata rubra and Eulemur fulvus albifrons: I. Interspecific patterns. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 112, 411–431.Google Scholar
Vasey, N. (2003). Varecia, ruffed lemurs. In Goodman, S. M. and Benstead, J., eds., Natural History of Madagascar. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1332–1336.Google Scholar
Vasey, N. (2005). Activity budgets and activity rhythms in red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra) on the Masoala Peninsula, Madagascar: Seasonality and reproductive energetics. American Journal of Primatology, 66, 23–44.Google Scholar
Vasey, N. (2006). Impact of seasonality and reproduction on social structure, ranging patterns, and fission-fusion social organization in red ruffed lemurs. In Gould, L. & Sauther, M. eds., Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation. New York: Springer/Kluwer, 275–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasey, N. (2007). The breeding system of wild red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra): A preliminary report. Primates, 48, 41–54.Google Scholar
Vasey, N., Mogilewsky, M., & Schatz, G. E. (2018). Infant nest and stash sites of variegated lemurs (Varecia rubra): The extended phenotype. American Journal of Primatology, 80(9), e22911.Google Scholar
Vasey, N., Baden, A. L., & Ratsimbazafy, J. (2022). Varecia, Ruffed or Variegated Lemurs. In Goodman, S. M., ed., The New Natural History of Madagascar. Princeton: Princetion University Press.Google Scholar
Virah-Sawmy, M., Willis, K. J., & Gillson, L. (2010). Evidence for drought and forest declines during the recent megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar. Journal of Biogeography, 37, 506–519.Google Scholar
Voarintsoa, N. R. G., Matero, I. S. O., Railsback, L. B., et al. (2019). Investigating the 8.2 event in northwestern Madagascar: insight from data-model comparisons. Quaternary Science Reviews, 204, 172–186.Google Scholar
Walker, A. C. (1967). Patterns of extinction among the subfossil Madagascan lemuroids. In Martin, P. S. & Wright, H. E., eds., Pleistocene Extinctions. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, pp. 425–432.Google Scholar
Wang, L., Brook, G. A., Burney, D. A., et al. (2019). The African Humid Period, rapid climate change events, the timing of human colonization, and megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar during the Holocene: Evidence from a 2m Anjohibe Cave stalagmite. Quaternary Science Reviews, 210, 136–153.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, B., & Goland, C. (1993). On population, foraging efficiency, and plant domestication. Current Anthropology, 34, 710–715.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, B., & Lu, F. (1997). A forager resource population ecology model and implications for indigenous conservation. Conservation Biology, 11(6), 1354–1364.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×