Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T16:00:50.897Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Teaching third languages: Findings, trends and challenges

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2008

Ulrike Jessner
Ulrike Jessner*
Affiliation:
University of Innsbruck, AustriaUlrike.Jessner@uibk.ac.at
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The last decade has witnessed a rapid increase in interest in multilingualism. Whereas a number of scholars in language acquisition research still base their work on the monolingual native speaker norm, others have developed more realistic viewpoints. This article provides an overview of international research on third language learning and teaching, including examples mainly from a European background. It describes sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic and educational aspects of multilingual teaching and emphasizes current research trends in this fairly young area of language teaching. The challenging ways which have been suggested to achieve multilingualism for all necessarily have to address learners, teachers, educators and policy makers. It will be argued that multilingual education can only be successful if language teaching in general is restructured and oriented towards multilingual norms.

Type
State of the Art
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 41 , Issue 1 , January 2008 , pp. 15 - 56
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahukanna, J., Lund, N. & Gentile, R. 1981. Inter- and intra-lingual interference effects in learning a third language. Modern Language Journal 65, 281–287.Google Scholar
Aronin, L. & Ó Laoire, M. 2003. Multilingual students' awareness of their language teacher's other languages.Language Awareness 12.3/4, 204–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronin, L. & Laoire, M. Ó 2004. Exploring multilingualism in cultural contexts: Towards a notion of multilinguality. In Hoffmann, C. & Ytsma, J. (eds.), Trilingualism in family, school and community. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 11–29.Google Scholar
Baetens-Beardsmore, H. 1995. The European school experience in multilingual education. In Skuttnab-Kangas, T. (ed.), Multilingualism for all. Lisse: Svets & Zeitlinger, 21–68.Google Scholar
Baker, C. 2006. Foundations of bilingualism and bilingual education (4th edn.), Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Barnes, J. 2006. Early trilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartelt, G. 1989. The interaction of multilingual constraints. In Dechert, H. W. & Raupach, M. (eds.), Interlingual processes. Tübingen: Narr, 151–177.Google Scholar
Behr, U. (ed.) 2005. Sprachen entdecken – Sprachen vergleichen. Kopiervorlagen zum sprachenübergreifenden Lernen. Deutsch, Englisch, Französisch, Russisch, Latein. Berlin: Cornelsen.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. 2001. Metalinguistic aspects of bilingual processing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21, 169–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F., Klein, R. & Viswanathan, M. 2004. Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging 19, 290–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braun, M. 1937. Beobachtungen zur Frage der Mehrsprachigkeit. Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeigen 4, 115–130Google Scholar
Brizic, K. 2006. The secret life of languages: Origin-specific differences in L1/L2 acquisition by immigrant children. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 16.3, 339–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brohy, C. 2001. Generic and/or specific advantages of bilingualism in a dynamic purilingual situation: The case of French as official L3 in the school of Samedan (Switzerland). International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4.1, 38–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candelier, M. (ed.) 2003. Evlang – l'éveil aux langues à l'école primaire. Bruxelles: De Boeck–Duculot Carrasco.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrasco Perea, E. 2002. L'intercomprehension dans le domain roman: la portée opératoire de la langue intermédiaire parente. In Müller-Lancé, & Riehl, (eds.), 79–86.Google Scholar
Caruana, S. 2006. Trilingualism in Malta: Maltese, English and ‘Italiano Televisio’. International Journal of Multilingualism 3.3, 159–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. 1991. Enseñanza-aprendizaje de inglés como L2 o L3. Donostia: Universidad del Pais Vasco.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. 2000. Research on multilingual acquisition. In Cenoz, & Jessner, (eds.), 39–53.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. 2001. The effect of linguistic distance, L2 status and age on crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition. In Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 8–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. 2003a. The additive effect of bilingualism on third language acquisition: A review. The International Journal of Bilingualism 7.1, 71–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. 2003b. Crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition: Implications for the organization of the multilingual mental lexicon. Bulletin VALS-ASLA 78, 1–11.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. 2005 English in bilingual programs in the Basque Country. The International Journal of the Sociology of Language 171, 41–50.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. in press. Towards multilingual education: Basque educational research in international perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. & Genesee, F. (eds.) 1998. Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and multilingual education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (eds.) 2000. Trilingualism – Tertiary languages – German in a multilingual world. Special Issue of Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht 5.1. <http://www.ualberta.ca/~german/ejournal/ejournal.htm> accessed 15/08/2007.+accessed+15/08/2007.>Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (eds.) 2001a. Third language acquisition in the school context. Special Issue of International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education 4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (eds.) 2001b. Looking beyond second language acquisition: Studies in tri- and multilingualism. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (eds.) 2001c. Crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. 2003a. Why investigate the multilingual lexicon? In Cenoz et al. (eds.) (2003b), 1–9.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (eds.) 2003b. The multilingual lexicon. Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. & Jessner, U. (eds.) 2000. English in Europe: The acquisition of a third language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. & Valencia, J. 1994. Additive trilingualism: Evidence from the Basque Country. Applied Psycholinguistics 15, 197–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chamot, A. & J. O'Malley 1994. Language learner and learning strategies. In Ellis, N. (ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages. London: Academic Press, 371–392.Google Scholar
Chandrasekhar, A. 1978. Base language. IRAL 16.1, 62–65.Google Scholar
Clyne, M. 1997. Some of the things trilinguals do. International Journal of Bilingualism 1.2, 95–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clyne, M. 2003a. Dynamics of language contact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clyne, M. 2003b. Towards a more language-centred approach to plurilingualism. In Dewaele, J-M., Housen, A. & Wei, L. (eds.), Bilingualism: Beyond principles. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 43–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clyne, M., Rossi, C. Hunt & Isaakidis, T. 2004. Learning a community language as a third language. International Journal of Multilingualism 1.1, 33–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, A. 1998. Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly 33.2, 185–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, V. J. (2003). The changing L1 in the L2 user's mind. In Cook, V. J. (ed.), Effects of the second language on the first. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, V. J. (2006). The nature of the L2 user. Presented at the EUROSLA conference, Ankara. <http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/EURO2006.htm> accessed 15/7/2007.+accessed+15/7/2007.>Google Scholar
Corson, D. 1995. Using English words. New York: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coste, D. 1997. Multilingual and multicultural competence and the role of school. Language Teaching 30, 90–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. 1991. Language learning and bilingualism. Sophia Linguistica 29, 1–194.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. 2001. Instructional conditions for trilingual development. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4, 61–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. 2006. Identity texts: The imaginative construction of self through multiliteracy pedagogy. In Garcia et al. (eds.), 51–68.Google Scholar
De Angelis, G. 2005a. Multilingualism and non-native lexical transfer: an identification problem. International Journal of Multilingualism 2.1, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Angelis, G. 2005b. Interlanguage influence of function words. Language Learning 55.3, 379–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Angelis, G. & Selinker, L. 2001. Interlanguage transfer and competing linguistic systems. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2001c), 42–58.Google Scholar
De Bot, K. 1992. A bilingual production model: Levelt's Speaking Model adapted. Applied Linguistics 13, 1–24.Google Scholar
De Bot, K. 2004. The multilingual lexicon: Modelling selection and control. International Journal of Multilingualism 1.1, 17–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Bot, K., Lowie, W. & Verspoor, M. 2007. A dynamic systems theory to L2 acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10.1, 7–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dentler, S. 1998. Zur Systematizität und Porgnostizierbarkeit lexikalischer Interferenzen. In Hufeisen, & Lindemann, (eds.), 31–46.Google Scholar
Dentler, S., Hufeisen, B. & Lindemann, B. (eds.) 2000. Tertiär- und Drittsprachen: Projekte und empirische Untersuchungen. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Google Scholar
Dewaele, J-M. 1998. Lexical inventions: French interlanguage as L2 versus L3. Applied Linguistics 19, 471–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewaele, J-M. & Edwards, M. 2001. Conversations trilingues (arabe, français, anglais) entre mère et fille: un saute–mouton referentiel? In Charnet, C. (ed.), Communications référentielles et processus référentiels. Montpellier: Publications de Praxiling: Université Paul-Valéry, 193–214.Google Scholar
Dijkstra, T. & van Hell, J. 2003. Testing the language mode hypothesis using trilinguals. International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education 6.1, 2–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dikova, V., Mavrodieva, L. & Stankulova, K. 2001. Curriculum für Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache in der bulgarischen allgemeinbildenden Oberschule. Zeitschrift für interkutlturellen Fremdpsrachenunterricht 5.3, 24. <http://zif.spz.tu-darmstadt.de/jg-05-3/beitrag/dikova.htm accessed 15/5/2007.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. 2005. The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in L2 acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Duke, J., Hufeisen, B. & Lutjeharms, M. 2004. Die sieben Siebe des EuroCom für den multilingualen Einstieg in die Welt der germanischen Sprachen. In Klein, & Rutke, (eds.), 109–134.Google Scholar
Ecke, P. 2001. Lexical retrieval in a third language: Evidence from errors and tip-of-the-tongue states. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2001c), 90–114.Google Scholar
Edwards, J. 1994. Multilingualism. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ellis, E. M. 2005. The invisible multilingual teacher: The contribution of language background to Australian ESL teachers' professional knowledge and beliefs. International Journal of Multilingualism 1.2, 90–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. 1998. Emergentism, connectionism and language learning. Language Learning 48, 631–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. 2005. At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24.2, 143–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. & Larsen-Freeman, D. 2006. Language emergence: Implications for applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics 27.4, whole issue.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding L2 acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ender, A. 2007. Wortschatzerwerb und Strategieneinsatz bei mehrsprachigen Lernenden. Aktivierung von Wissen und erfolgreiche Verknüpfung beim Lesen auf Verständnis einer Fremdsprache. Hohengehren: Schneider.Google Scholar
Escamilla, A., Chavez, L. & Vigil, P. 2005. Rethinking the ‘Gap’: High stakes testing and Spanish-speaking students in Colorado. Journal of Teacher Education 56.2, 132–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eurobarometer Report 54. <http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb54/eb54_de.pdf> accessed 17/5/2007.+accessed+17/5/2007.>Google Scholar
EuroCom. <http://eurocom-frankfurt.de> accessed 10/5/2007.+accessed+10/5/2007.>Google Scholar
European Schools. <http.//eursc.eu> accessed 17/5/2007.+accessed+17/5/2007.>Google Scholar
Feichtinger, A., Lanzmaier-Ugri, K., Farnault, B. & Pornon, J. 2000. Bilder von der Welt in verschiedenen Sprachen. In Matzer, E. (ed.), Sprach- und Kulturerziehung in Theorie und Praxis. Graz: Zentrum für Schulentwicklung, 57–70.Google Scholar
Feigs, W. 1998. Verbalkongruenzfehler im Fremdsprachenerwerb. In Hufeisen, & Lindemann, (eds.), 7–20.Google Scholar
Flynn, S., Foley, C. & Vinnitskaya, I. 2004. The cumulative–enhancement model for language acquisition: Comparing adults' and children's patterns of development in first, second and third language acquisition of relative clauses. International Journal of Multilingualism 1.1, 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabrys-Baker, D. 2001. A cross-cultural aspect of the interaction of languages in the mental lexicon of multiligual learners. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2001b), 75–96.Google Scholar
Galanet <http://www.galanet.eu> accessed 30/6/2007.+accessed+30/6/2007.>Google Scholar
García, O., Skuttnab-Kangas, T. & Torres-Guzmán, M. 2006a. Weaving spaces and (de)constructing ways for multilingual schools: The actual and the imagined. In García, et al. (eds.), 3–47.Google Scholar
García, O., Skuttnab-Kangas, T. & Torres-Guzmán, M. (eds.) 2006b. Imagining multilingual schools: Languages in education and globalization. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García Mayo, M. 2006. Synthetic compounding in the English interlanguage of Basque-Spanish bilinguals. International Journal of Multilingualism 3.4, 231–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R., Tremblay, P. & Masgoret, A-M. 1997. Towards a full model of L2 learning: an empirical investigation. Modern Language Journal 81, 344–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gass, S. 1996. L2 acquisition and linguistic theory: the role of language transfer. In Ritchie, W. & Bhatia, T. (eds.), Handbook of L2 acquisition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 317–345.Google Scholar
Gatto, D. 2000. Language proficiency and narrative proficiency of a trilingual child. In Dentler, et al. (eds.), 117–142.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. 1998. A case study of multilingual education in Canada. In Cenoz, & Genesee, (eds.), 243–258.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., Tucker, R. & Lambert, W. 1975. Communication skills in bilingual children. Child Development 54, 105–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glinz, H. 1994. Grammatiken im Vergleich. Deutsch-Französich-Englisch-Latein. Formen-Bedeutungen-Verstehen. Tübingen: Niemeyer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González, P. 1998. Learning a L2 in a third language environment. Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen 59, 31–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graddol, D. 2004. The future of language. Science Magazine 303, 1329–1331.Google ScholarPubMed
Green, D. 1986. Control, activation and resource: A framework and a model for the control of speech in bilinguals. Brain and Language 27, 210–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, D. 1998. Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 1, 67–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grießler, M. 2001. The effects of third language learning on L2 proficiency: An Austrian example. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4.1, 50–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groseva, M. 1998. Dient das L2-System als ein Fremdsprachenmodell? In Hufeisen, & Lindemann, (eds.), 21–30.Google Scholar
Grosjean, F. 1985. The bilingual as a competent but specific speaker-hearer. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 6, 467–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grosjean, F. 1998. Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 1, 131–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grosjean, F. 2001. The bilingual's language modes. In Nicol, J. (ed.), One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing. Oxford: Blackwell, 1–25.Google Scholar
Gulutsan, M. 1976. Third language learning. Canadian Modern Language Review 32.3, 309–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haarmann, H. 1980. Multilingualismus (1). Probleme der Systematik und Typologie. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar
Hall, C. & Ecke, P. 2003. Parasitism as a default mechanism in L3 vocabulary acquisition. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2003b), 71–86.Google Scholar
Hamers, J. & Blanc, M. 1989. Bilinguality and bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hammarberg, W. 2001. Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 production and acquisition. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2001c), 21–41.Google Scholar
Hammarberg, W. & Williams, S. 1993. A study of third language acquisition. In Hammarberg, B. (ed.), Problem, process, product in language learning. Stockholm: Stockholm University, Department of Linguistics, 60–69.Google Scholar
Haugen, E. 1956. Bilingualism in the Americas. Alabama: American Dialect Society.Google Scholar
Hawkins, E. 1999. Foreign language study and language awareness. Language Awareness 8.3&4, 124–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hélot, C. 2006. Bridging the gap between prestigious bilingualism and the bilingualism of minorities: Towards an integrated perspective of multilingualism in the French education context. In Laoire, Ó (ed.), 49–72.Google Scholar
Hélot, C. & Young, A. 2006. Imagining multilingual education in France: A language and cultural awareness project at primary level. In García, et al. (eds.), 69–90.Google Scholar
Herdina, P. & Jessner, U. 2002. A dynamic model of multilingualism: Perspectives of change in psycholinguistics. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herwig, A. 2001. Plurilingual lexical organisation: Evidence from lexical processing in L1-L2-L3-L4 translation. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2001c), 115–37.Google Scholar
Hinger, B., Kofler, W., Skinner, A. & Stadler, W. 2005. The Innsbruck model of Fremdsprachendidaktik: Towards an integrated multilingual approach in pre-service teacher education. The Teacher Trainer 19, 17–20.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, C. 1985. Language acquisition in two trilingual children. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 6, 281–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffmann, C. 1998. Luxemburg and the European Schools. In Cenoz, & Genesee, (eds.), 143–174.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, C. 2000. The spread of English and the growth of multilingualism with English in Europe. In Cenoz, & Jessner, (eds.), 1–21.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. 1991. Englisch als erste und Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache. Empirische Untersuchung zur fremdsprachlichen Interaktion. Frankfurt: Lang.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. 1994. Englisch im Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache. München: Klett.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. 1998. L3 – Stand der Forschung – Was bleibt zu tun? In Hufeisen, & Lindemann, (eds.), 169–183.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. 2005. Gesamtsprachencurriculum: Einflussfaktoren and Bedingungsgefüge. In Hufeisen, & Lutjeharms, (eds.), 9–18.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Gibson, M. 2003. Zur Interdependenz emotionaler und kognitiver Faktoren im Rahmen eines Modells zur Beschreibung sukzessiven multiplen Sprachenlernens. Bulletin VALS-ASLA 78, 13–33.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Lindemann, B. (eds.) 1998. Tertiärsprachen. Theorien, Modelle, Methoden. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Lindemann, B. (eds.) 2000. L2–L3 und ihre zwischensprachliche Interaktion: Zu individueller Mehrsprachigkeit und gesteuertem Lernen. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Lindemann, B. (eds.) 2005. Gesamtsprachencurriculum – Integrierte Sprachendidaktik – Common Curriculum: Theoretische Überlegungen und Beispiele der Umsetzung (Giessener Beiträge zur Fremdsprachenforschung). Tübingen: Gunter Narr.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Marx, N. (eds.) 2004. Beim Schwedischlernen sind Englisch und Deutsch ganz hilfsvoll: Untersuchungen zum multiplen Sprachenlernen. Frankfurt/M.: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Marx, N. (eds.) 2007a. EuroComGerm – Die sieben Siebe: Germanische Sprachen lesen lernen. Aachen: Shaker Verlag.Google Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Marx, N. 2007b. How can DaFnE and EuroComGerm contribute to the concept of receptive multilingualism? Theoretical and practical considerations. In Thije, J. & Zeevaert, L. (eds.), Receptive, multilingualism: Linguistic analyses, language policies and didactic concepts. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 307–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hufeisen, B. & Neuner, G. (eds.) 2003. Mehrsprachigkeitskonzept – Tertiärsprachen – Deutsch nach Englisch. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.Google Scholar
International School of Vienna <http:vis.ac.at> accessed 15/7/2007.+accessed+15/7/2007.>Google Scholar
James, A. 2000. English as a European Lingua Franca: Current realities and existing dichotomies. In Cenoz, & Jessner, (eds.), 248–260.Google Scholar
Janovsky, U. 2000. Französisch im DaF-Unterricht. In Dentler et al. (eds.), 169–190.Google Scholar
Jespersen, O. 1922. Language. London: Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Jessner, U. 1999. Metalinguistic awareness in multilinguals: Cognitive aspects of third language learning. Language Awareness 8.3&4, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jessner, U. 2003. On the nature of crosslinguistic interaction in multilinguals. In Cenoz et al. (eds.) (2003b), 45–55.Google Scholar
Jessner, U. 2006. Linguistic awareness in multilinguals: English as a third language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Jessner, U. 2008. A DST-model of multilingualism and the role of metalinguistic awareness. Second language development as a dynamic process. Special Issue of Modern Language Journal 92.2.Google Scholar
Jessner, U. in press a. Language awareness in multilinguals. In Cenoz, J. (ed.), Knowledge about language. New York: Springer. [Vol. 5 of Handbook of language and education, edited by Hornberger, N..]Google Scholar
Jessner, U. in press b. Multicompetence approaches to the development of language proficiency in multilingual education. In Cummins, J. (ed.), Bilingual education. New York: Springer. [Vol. 6 of Handbook of language and education, edited by Hornberger, N..]Google Scholar
Jessner, U. & Cenoz, J. 2007. Teaching English as a third language. In Cummins, J. & Davies, C. (eds.), The handbook of English language teaching. Dordrecht: Springer, 155–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karpf, A. 1990. Selbstorganisationsprozesse in der sprachlichen Ontogenese: Erst- und Fremdsprache(n). Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar
Kaspers, A. (2007). Ladin – The Ladin language in education in Italy. <http://www1.fa.knaw.nl/mercator/regionale_dossiers/regional_dossier_ladin_in_italy.htm>; accessed 15/5/2007.;+accessed+15/5/2007.>Google Scholar
Kellerman, E. 1979. Transfer and non-transfer: Where are we now? Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2, 37–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kellerman, E. 1995. Crosslinguistic influence: Transfer to nowhere? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 15, 125–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, C. 2001. Metalinguistic awareness in multilinguals: Implicit and explicit grammatical awareness and its relationship with language experience and language attainment. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Kemp, C. 2006. Implicit and explicit knowledge of grammatical form and function in learners using three or more languages. Presented at the conference of the Association for Language Awareness, Le Mans, France.Google Scholar
Kemp, C. in press. Strategic processing in grammar learning: Do multilinguals use more strategies. International Journal of Multilingualism.Google Scholar
Kjär, U. 2000. Deutsch als L3: Zur Interimsprache schwedischer Deutschlerner (unter Berücksichtigung des Englischen als L2). In Dentler et al. (eds.), 41–56.Google Scholar
Klein, E. 1995. Second vs. third language acquisition: Is there a difference? Language Learning 45.3, 419–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, H. G. & Rutke, D. (eds.) 2004. Neuere Forschungen zur Europäischen Intercomprehension. Aachen: Shaker.Google Scholar
Klein, H.G. & Stegmann, T. D. 2000. EuroComRom – Die sieben Siebe: Romanische Sprachen sofort lesen können. Aachen: Shaker.Google Scholar
Köberle, B. 1998. Positive Interaktion zwischen L2, L3, L4 und ihre Applikationen im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In Hufeisen, & Lindemann, (eds.), 89–110.Google Scholar
König, W., Cedden, G. & Onaran, S. 2006. Language production in Turkish–German–English trilinguals. International Journal of Multilingualism 2.2, 135–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kovács, A. 2007. Beyond language: Childhood bilingualism. In Kecskes, I. & Albertazzi, L. (eds.), Cognitive aspects of bilingualism. New York: Springer, 301–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krashen, S. 1982. Principles and practices in L2 acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Krumm, H-J. 2005. Von der additiven zur curricularen Mehrsprachigkeit: Über die Notwendigkeit der Einbeziehung von Minderheiten-, Migranten- und Nachbarsprachen. In Hufeisen, & Lutjeharms, (eds.), 27–36.Google Scholar
Lambert, W. 1977. The effects of bilingualism on the individual: Cognitive and sociocultural consequences. In Hornby, P. (ed.), Bilingualism: Psychological, social and educational implications. New York: Academic Press, 15–28.Google Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D. 1997. Chaos/complexity science and L2 acquisition. Applied Linguistics 18, 141–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lasagabaster, D. 1998. The threshold hypothesis applied to three languages in contact at school. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4.5, 310–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lasagabaster, D. & Huguet, A. (eds.) 2007. Multilingualism in European countries. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Laurie, S. 1890. Lectures on language and linguistic method in school. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leung, I. 2007. Second language (L2) English and third language (L3) French article acquisition by native speakers of Cantonese. International Journal of Multilingualism 4.2, 117–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levelt, W. 1989. Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. 1997. Implementing the lexical approach: Putting theory into practice. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.Google Scholar
Lindemann, B. 2000. ‘Da fällt mir immer zuerst ein englisches Wort ein’: Zum Einfluss der ersten Fremdsprache beim Übersetzen ins Deutsche. In Dentler, et al. (eds.), 57–66.Google Scholar
Lindqvist, C. 2006. L'influence translinguistique dans l'interlangue française: Étude de la production orale d'apprenants plurilingues. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Stockholm.Google Scholar
Wei, Li 2000. Dimensions of bilingualism. In Wei, Li (ed.), The bilingualism reader. London: Routledge, 3–25.Google Scholar
Llurda, E. 2005. Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges and contributions to the profession. New York: Sprinter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (ed.) 1999. The emergence of language. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mägiste, E. 1984. Learning a third language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 5, 415–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malakoff, M. & Hakuta, K. 1991. Translation skill and metalinguistic awareness in bilinguals. In Bialystok, E. (ed.), Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 141–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansour, G. 1993. Multilingualism and nation building. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Marx, N. 2005. Hörverstehensleistungen im Deutschen als Tertiärsprache: Zum Nutzen eines Sensibilisierungsunterrichts in ‘DaFnE’. Hohengehren: Schneider.Google Scholar
Masperi, M. 2002. Intercompréhension en langues romanes: Deux temps forts d'une recherche didactique. In Müller-Lancé, & Riehl, (eds.), 87–98.Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. 1994. The case for language awareness in the Irish primary school curriculum. Language Awareness 3, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, B. 1990. The relationship between first and second languages: Language proficiency and language aptitude. In Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J. & Swain, M. (eds.), The development of L2 proficiency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 158–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, B. & Nayak, N. 1989. Processing a new language: Does knowing other languages make a difference? In Dechert, H. & Raupach, M. (eds.), Interlingual processes. Tübingen: Narr, 5–14.Google Scholar
Meara, P. 1999. Self-organization in bilingual lexicons. In Broeder, P. & Muure, J. (eds.), Language and thought in development. Tübingen: Narr, 127–144.Google Scholar
Meisel, J. M. 1983. Transfer as an L2 strategy. Language and Communication 3, 11–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meißner, F-J. 2004. Transfer und Transferieren: Anleitungen zum Interkomprehensionsunterricht. In Klein, & Rutke, (eds.), 39–66.Google Scholar
Merkelbach, C. 2006. The pedagogical impact of L2 acquisition (English) on tertiary language acquisition (German) in Taiwan. In Laoire, Ó (ed.), 20–35.Google Scholar
Met, M. 1998. Curriculum decision-making in content-based language teaching. In Cenoz, & Genesee, (eds.), 35–63.Google Scholar
Michiels, B. 1997. Die Rolle der Niederländischkenntnisse bei französisichsprachigen Lernern von Deutsch als L3: Eine empirische Untersuchung. Ph.D. thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.Google Scholar
Mißler, B. 1999. Fremdsprachenlernerfahrungen und Lernstrategien. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Google Scholar
Mißler, B. 2000. Previous experience of foreign language learning and its contribution to the development of learning strategies. In Dentler, et al. (eds.), 7–22.Google Scholar
Modirkhamene, S. 2006. The reading achievement of third language versus second language learners of English in relation to the interdependence hypothesis. International Journal of Multilingualism 3.4, 280–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohanty, A. 1994. Bilingualism in a multilingual society: Psychosocial and pedagogical implications. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar
Möhle, D. 1989. Multilingual interaction in foreign language production. In Dechert, H. & Raupach, M. (eds.), Interlingual processes. Tübingen: Narr, 179–194.Google Scholar
Moore, D. 2006a. Plurilingualism and strategic competence in context. International Journal of Multilingualism 3.2, 125–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, D. 2006b. Plurilinguismes et École. Paris: Didier.Google Scholar
Müller, A. 1999. Vergleichsweise einfach. PRAXIS 46, 273–281.Google Scholar
Müller-Lancé, J. 2002. Tertiärsprachen aus Sicht der Kognitiven Linguistik: Überlegungen zu Fremdsprachenunterricht und Fremdsprachenfolge. In Müller-Lancé, & Riehl, (eds.), 133–150.Google Scholar
Müller-Lancé, J. 2003. Der Wortschatz romanischer Sprachen im Tertiärspracherwerb. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Google Scholar
Müller-Lancé, J. 2004. Latein als Zielsprache im Rahmen mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktischer Konzepte. In Klein, & Rutke, (eds.), 83–94.Google Scholar
Müller-Lancé, J. & Riehl, C. (eds.) 2002. Ein Kopf – viele Sprachen: Koexistenz, Interaktion und Vermittlung. Une tête – plusières langues: coexistence, interaction et enseignement. Aachen: Shaker.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. 2000. Bilingualism and trilingualism in school students in Catalonia. In Cenoz, & Jessner, (eds.), 157–178.Google Scholar
Munske, H. H. & Kirkness, A. (eds.) 1996. Eurolatein. Tübingen: Niemeyer.Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, C. 2006. Multiple voices: An introduction to bilingualism. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Näf, A. & Pfänder, D. 2001. <Springing of> a <bruck> with an elastic <sail> – Deutsches im Englisch von französischsprachigen Schülern. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Linguistik 35, 5–37.Google Scholar
Naiman, N., Fröhlich, M., Stern, H. & Todesco, A. 1996[1978]. The good language learner. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Nation, R. & McLaughlin, B. 1986. Experts and novices: An information-processing approach to the ‘good language learner’ problem. Applied Psycholinguistics 7, 51–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navés, T., Miralpeix, I. & Celaya, M. 2006. Who transfers more . . . and what? Crosslinguistic influence in relation to school grade and language dominance in EFL. International Journal of Multilingualism 2.2, 113–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nayak, N., Hansen, N., Krueger, N. & McLaughlin, B. 1990. Language-learning strategies in monolingual and multilingual adults. Language Learning 40.2, 221–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odlin, T. & Jarvis, S. 2004. Same source, different outcomes: A study of Swedish influence on the acquisition of English in Finland. International Journal of Multilingualism 1.2, 123–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oksaar, E. 1977. On becoming trilingual. In Molony, C., Zobl, H. & Stölting, W. (eds.), Deutsch im Kontakt mit anderen Sprachen. Kronberg: Scriptor, 296–307.Google Scholar
Ó Laoire, M. 2005. L1, L2 and L3 teaching in Ireland – towards a common curriculum. In Hufeisen, & Lutjeharms, (eds.), 45–50.Google Scholar
Ó Laoire, M. (ed.) 2006. Multilingualism in educational settings. Hohengrehen: Schneider.Google Scholar
Olshtain, E. & Nissim-Amitai, F. 2004. Curriculum decision-making in a multilingual context. International Journal of Multilingualism 1.1, 53–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oomen-Welke, I. 2006. Sprachunterricht sprachübergreifend – (wie) geht das praktisch, und hat es Effekte? In Timm, J-P. (ed.), Fremdsprachenlernen: Kompetenzen, Standards, Aufgaben, Evaluation. Tübingen: Narr, 303–320.Google Scholar
Oxford, R. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Pavlenko, A. 2006. Emotions and multilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peal, E. & Lambert, W. 1962. The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs 76, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, D. 1992. The social scientist's bestiary: A guide to fabled threats to, and defences of, naturalistic social science. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Ringbom, H. 1987. The role of L1 in foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ringbom, H. 2007. Crosslinguistic similarity in foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ruiz de Zarobe, Y. 2006. Age and third language production: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Multilingualism 2.2, 105–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saer, D. 1923. The effects of bilingualism on intelligence. British Journal of Psychology 14, 25–38.Google Scholar
Safont, M. 2003. Metapragmatic awareness and pragmatic production of third language learners of English: A focus on request acts realisations. The International Journal of Bilingualism 7.1, 43–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Safont Jordá, M. 2006. Pragmatic production of third language learners of English: A focus on request acts modifiers. International Journal of Multilingualism 2.2, 84–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagasta, M. 2003. Acquiring writing skills in a third language: The positive effects of bilingualism. The International Journal of Bilingualism 7.1, 27–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanz, C. 1997. L3 acquisition and the cognitive advantages of bilingualism: Catalans learning English. In Díaz, L. & Pérez, C. (eds.), Views on the acquisition and use of a L2. Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 449–456.Google Scholar
Schmid, S. 1993. Learning strategies for closely related languages: On the Italian spoken by Spanish immigrants in Switzerland. In Kettemann, B. & Wieden, W. (eds.), Current issues in European second language acquisition research, 405–419.Google Scholar
Schmid, S. 1995. Multilingualer Fremdsprachenunterricht: Ein didaktischer Versuch mit Lernstrategien. Multilingua 15, 55–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schönpflug, U. 2003. The transfer-appropriate-processing approach and the trilingual's organisation of the lexicon. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2003b), 27–44.Google Scholar
Schuchardt, H. 1884. Slavo-deutsches und Slavo-italienisches. Graz: Leuschner & Lubensky.Google Scholar
Schweers, W. 1996. Metalinguistic awareness and language transfer: One thing leads to another. Presented at the Conference of the Association for Language Awareness, Dublin, July.Google Scholar
Seidlhofer, B. 2000. Mind the gap: English as a mother tongue vs. English as a lingua franca. Vienna English Working Papers 9.1, 51–68.Google Scholar
Seidlhofer, B. 2005. Standard future or half-baked quackery? Descriptive and pedagogic bearings on the globalisation of English. In Gnutzmann, C. & Intemann, F. (eds.), The globalisation of English and the English language classroom. Tübingen: Narr, 159–173.Google Scholar
Sharwood Smith, M. 1994. L2 learning. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Sharwood Smith, M. & Kellerman, E. 1986. Crosslinguistic influence in L2 acquisition: An introduction. In Kellerman, E. & Sharwooddr Smith, M. (eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in L2 acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press, 1–9.Google Scholar
Singh, R. & Carroll, S. 1979. L1, L2 and L3. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 5.1, 51–63.Google Scholar
Singleton, D. 1987. Mother and other tongue influence on learner French. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 9, 327–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singleton, D. & Little, D. 1991. The second language learner: Some evidence from university level-learners of French and German. Second Language Research 7.1, 61–82.Google Scholar
Skuttnab-Kangas, T. 1984. Bilingualism or not. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Skuttnab-Kangas, T. 2000. Linguistic human rights and teachers of English. In Hall, J. & Eggington, W. (eds.), The sociopolitics of English language teaching. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 22–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spöttl, C. 2001. Expanding students' mental lexicons: A multilingual student perspective. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2001b), 161–175.Google Scholar
Spöttl, C. & Hinger, B. 2002. A multilingual approach to vocabulary acquisition. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Third Language Acquisition and Trilingualism in Leeuwarden (CD-Rom). Leeuwaarden: Fryske Akademy.Google Scholar
Spöttl, C. & McCarthy, M. 2003. Formulaic utterances in the multilingual context. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2003b), 133–152.Google Scholar
Stedje, A. 1976. Interferenz von Muttersprache und Zweitsprache auf eine dritte Sprache beim freien Sprechen – ein Vergleich. Zielsprache Deutsch 1, 15–21.Google Scholar
Stoye, S. 2000. Eurocomprehension: Der romanistische Beitrag für eine europäische Mehrsprachigkeit. Aachen: Shaker.Google Scholar
Terrasi, E. 2000. Die Anwendung funktional–pragmatischer Kategorien auf die Vermittlung von DaF unter Berücksichtigung von Erst- und Zweitsprachenkenntnissen exemplifiziert an der Tessiner Unterrichtssituation: Die schulische Auseinandersetzung mit Sprache. In Dentler, et al. (eds.), 99–116.Google Scholar
Thomas, J. 1988. The role played by metalinguistic awareness in second and third language learning. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9, 235–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, J. 1992. Metalinguistic awareness in second- and third-language learning. In Harris, R. (ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals. Amsterdam: North Holland, 531–545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, M.-C. 2006. Crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition: The role of L2 proficiency and L2 exposure. CLO/OPL Ottawa 34, 109–119.Google Scholar
Valdés, G. 2003. Expanding definitions of giftedness: The case of young interpreters from immigrant communities. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Valdés, G. & Figueroa, R. 1994. Bilingualism and testing: A special case of bias. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Viereck, W. 1996. English in Europe: Its nativisation and use as a lingua franca, with special reference to German-speaking countries. In Hartmann, R. (ed.), English in Europe. Oxford: Intellect, 16–23.Google Scholar
Vildomec, V. 1963. Multilingualism. Leyden: A.W. Sythoff.Google Scholar
Vogel, T. 1992. ‘English und Deutsch gibt es immer Krieg’.cd Sprachverarbeitungsprozesse beim Erwerb des Deutschen als Drittsprache. Zielsprache Deutsch 23.2, 95–99.Google Scholar
Vollmer, H. 2001. Englisch und Mehrsprachigkeit: Die Rolle des Englischen für den Erwerb weiterer Fremdsprachen. In Aguado, K. & A. Hu (eds.), Mehrsprachigkeit und Mehrkulturalität. Berlin: Pädagogischer Zeitschriftenverlag, 75–88.Google Scholar
Wandruszka, M. 1986. Wege zur Mehrsprachigkeit in unseren Schulen. In Narr, B. & Wittje, H. (eds.), Spracherwerb und Mehrsprachigkeit: Language Acquisition and Multilingualism. Festschrift für Els Oksaar zum 60. Geburtstag. Tübingen: Narr, 223–235.Google Scholar
Wandruszka, M. 1990. Die europäische Sprachengemeinschaft: Deutsch–Französisch–Englisch–Italienisch–Spanisch im Vergleich. Tübingen: Francke.Google Scholar
Wei, L. 2003. Activation of lemmas in the multilingual mental lexicon and transfer in third language acquisition. In Cenoz, et al. (eds.) (2003b), 57–70.Google Scholar
Wei, L. 2006. The multilingual mental lexicon and lemma transfer in third language learning. International Journal of Multilingualism 3.2, 88–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisgerber, L. 1929. Muttersprache und Geistesbildung. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Rupprecht.Google Scholar
White Paper on Education and Training 2003. !http://ec.europa.eu/education/doc/official/keydoc/lb-en.pdf; accessed 3/6/2007.Google Scholar
Widdowson, H. 2003. Defining issues in English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ytsma, J. 2000. Trilingual primary education in Friesland. In Cenoz, & Jessner, (eds.), 222–235.Google Scholar
Zybatow, L. 2003. EuroComSlav: A road to Slavonic languages. Wiener Slawistischer Almanach 52, 281–295.Google Scholar