Editorial
A Long Night in the Emergency Department during the Baltimore, Maryland (USA) Riots
- J. Lee Jenkins, Missy Mason
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 July 2015, pp. 325-326
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,Jenkins JL .Mason M. A Long Night in the Emergency Department during the Baltimore, Maryland (USA) Riots . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –2 .
Original Research
Mental Well-being Considerations in Preparation for Disaster Health Care: Learning From Deployment
- Tytti H. Mäkinen, Sari M. Miettinen, W. George Kernohan
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 June 2015, pp. 327-336
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Introduction
The mental well-being of internationally deployed disaster-relief workers has become an issue of concern. The psychological consequences for the relief worker being exposed to trauma and threats have been well documented; however, the role of pre-deployment preparation in supporting mental well-being has not received due attention, despite research indicating the need for it.
Hypothesis/ProblemThis case series examines the experiences of deployed volunteers of one emergency-relief organization. The aim of this research was to identify the participants’ interpretations of the appropriateness of the pre-deployment preparation they had received in light of supporting their mental well-being during and after deployment.
The main research questions were: How appropriate was pre-deployment preparation in supporting mental well-being? What elements were lacking, and what else would be useful?
MethodsUsing a hermeneutic phenomenological approach, thematic, semi-structured interviews were conducted with six deployed volunteers of an international emergency-relief organization. Data were analyzed using content analysis.
ResultsThe participants in this study regarded the pre-deployment preparation they had received, on the whole, as appropriate in supporting their mental well-being. The seven main themes identified as important and supportive of mental well-being were: (1) realistic expectations, (2) team building and support, (3) self-awareness and self-care, (4) post-deployment support, (5) practical skills and creative solutions, (6) shared values and beliefs, and (7) safety and security. Specific areas identified as lacking within these themes included communication, self-care, post-deployment support, and safety and security.
ConclusionThemes identified as important for supporting mental well-being in this research largely were consistent with those in previous research. The generally positive experiences of the support received do not reflect results from existing research, where significant shortcomings in worker support have been expressed. However, important elements were also identified as lacking in this specific pre-deployment preparation.
,Mäkinen TH ,Miettinen SM .Kernohan WG Mental Well-being Considerations in Preparation for Disaster Health Care: Learning From Deployment . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 10 .
Disaster Preparedness in Home-based Primary Care: Policy and Training
- Maria L. Claver, Tamar Wyte-Lake, Aram Dobalian
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 19 June 2015, pp. 337-343
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Introduction
Veterans served by Veterans Health Administration (VHA) home-based primary care (HBPC) are an especially vulnerable population due to high rates of physical, functional, and psychological limitations. Home-bound patients tend to be an older population dealing with normal changes that accompany old age, but may not adequately be prepared for the increased risk that often occurs during disasters. Home health programs are in an advantageous position to address patient preparedness as they may be one of the few outside resources that reach community-dwelling adults.
ProblemThis study further explores issues previously identified from an exploratory study of a single VHA HBPC program regarding disaster preparedness for HBPC patients, including ways in which policy and procedures support the routine assessment of disaster preparedness for patients, including patient education activities.
MethodsThis project involved semi-structured interviews with 31 practitioners and leadership at five VHA HBPC programs; three urban and two rural. Transcripts of the interviews were analyzed using content analysis techniques.
ResultsPractitioners reported a need for further training regarding how to assess properly patient disaster preparedness and patient willingness to prepare. Four themes emerged, validating themes identified in a prior exploratory project and identifying additional issues regarding patient disaster preparedness: (1) individual HBPC programs generally are tasked with developing their disaster preparedness policies; (2) practitioners receive limited training about HBPC program preparedness; (3) practitioners receive limited training about how to prepare their patients for a disaster; and (4) the role of HBPC programs is focused on fostering patient self-sufficiency rather than presenting practitioners as first responders. There was significant variability across the five sites in terms of which staff have responsibility for preparedness policies and training.
ConclusionVariability across and within sites regarding how patient needs are addressed by preparedness policies, and in terms of preparedness training for HBPC providers, could place patients at heightened risk of morbidity or mortality following a disaster. Despite the diversity and uniqueness of HBPC programs and the communities they serve, there are basic aspects of preparedness that should be addressed by these programs. The incorporation of resources in assessment and preparedness activities, accompanied by increased communication among directors of HBPC programs across the country, may improve HBPC programs’ abilities to assist their patients and their caregivers in preparing for a disaster.
,Claver ML ,Wyte-Lake T .Dobalian A Disaster Preparedness in Home-based Primary Care: Policy and Training . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 7.
Medical and Disaster Preparedness of US Marathons
- Joshua Glick, Jeffrey Rixe, Nancy Spurkeland, Jodi Brady, Matthew Silvis, Robert P. Olympia
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- 23 June 2015, pp. 344-350
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Background
Despite the events that occurred at the 2013 Boston Marathon (Boston, Massachusetts USA), there are currently no evidence-based guidelines or published data regarding medical and disaster preparedness of marathon races in the United States.
PurposeTo determine the current state of medical disaster preparedness of marathons in the US and to identify potential areas for improvement.
MethodsA cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted from January through May of 2014. The questionnaire was distributed to race directors of US road and trail marathons, as identified by a comprehensive internet database.
ResultsOne hundred twenty-three questionnaires were available for analysis (19% usable response rate). Marathon races from all major regions of the US were represented. Runner medical information was not listed on race bibs in 53% of races. Only 45% of races held group training and planning sessions prior to race day. Automated external defibrillators (AEDs) were immediately available on 50% of courses, and medications such as albuterol (30%), oxygen (33%), and IV fluids (34%) were available less frequently. Regarding medical emergencies, 55% of races did not have protocols for the assessment of dehydration, asthma, chest pain, syncope, or exercise-induced cramping. With regard to disaster preparedness, 50% of races did not have protocols for the management of disasters, and 21% did not provide security personnel at start/finish lines, aid stations, road crossings, and drop bag locations.
ConclusionsAreas for improvement in the preparedness of US marathons were identified, such as including printed medical information on race bibs, increasing pre-race training and planning sessions for volunteers, ensuring the immediate availability of certain emergency equipment and medications, and developing written protocols for specific emergencies and disasters.
Glick J Rixe JA Spurkeland N Brady J Silvis M .Olympia RP Medical and Disaster Preparedness of US Marathons . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –7 .
Quantitative Evaluation for Uncertainty of Information About Patients’ Injury Severity in a Hospital Disaster: A Simulation Study Using Shannon’s Information Theory
- Yasuhiko Ajimi, Masaru Sasaki, Yasuyuki Uchida, Masayasu Gakumazawa, Katsunori Sasaki, Takashi Fujita, Tetsuya Sakamoto
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 29 June 2015, pp. 351-354
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Introduction
Reducing uncertainty about information on injury severity or number of patients is an important concern in managing equipment and rescue personnel in a disaster setting. A simplified disaster model was designed using Shannon’s Information Theory to study the uncertainty of information in a triage scenario.
HypothesisA disaster triage scene with a specific number of injured patients represents a source of information regarding the extent of patients’ disability. It is possible to quantify uncertainty of information regarding patients’ incapacity as entropy if the information source and information arising from the source in Information Theory can be adapted to the disaster situation and the information on patients’ incapacity that arises.
MethodsFive different scenarios of a fire disaster in a hospital were modeled. Information on patients’ extent of impairment was converted to numerical values in relation to available equipment and the number of rescue personnel. Victims were 10 hospitalized patients with conditions of unknown severity. Triage criteria were created arbitrarily and consisted of four categories from Level 1 (able to walk) to Level 4 (cardiac arrest). The five situations were as follows: (1) Case 1: no triage officer; (2) Case 2: one triage officer; (3) Case 3: one triage officer and a message that six patients could walk; (4) Case 4: one triage officer and a message that all patients could obey commands; and (5) Case 5: one triage officer and a message that all patients could walk. Entropy in all cases and the amount of information newly given in Cases 2 through 5 were calculated.
ResultsEntropies in Cases 1 through 5 were 5.49, 2.00, 1.60, 1.00, and 0.00 bits/symbol, respectively. These values depict the uncertainty of probability of the triage categories arising in each situation. The amount of information for the triage was calculated as 3.49 bits (ie, 5.49 minus 2.00). In the same manner, the amount of information for the messages in Cases 3 through 5 was calculated as 0.4, 1.0, and 2.0 bits, respectively. These amounts of information indicate a reduction in uncertainty regarding the probability of the triage levels arising.
ConclusionIt was possible to quantify uncertainty of information about the extent of disability in patients at a triage location and to evaluate reduction of the uncertainty by using entropy based on Shannon’s Information Theory.
,Ajimi Y ,Sasaki M ,Uchida Y ,Gakumazawa M ,Sasaki K ,Fujita T .Sakamoto T Quantitative Evaluation for Uncertainty of Information About Patients’ Injury Severity in a Hospital Disaster: A Simulation Study Using Shannon’s Information Theory . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 -4 .
Impact of a Hurricane Shelter Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreak on a Responding Medical Team
- Joshua B. Gaither, Rianne Page, Caren Prather, Fred Paavola, Andrew L. Garrett
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- 01 July 2015, pp. 355-358
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Introduction
In late October of 2012, Hurricane Sandy struck the northeast United States and shelters were established throughout the impacted region. Numerous cases of infectious viral gastroenteritis occurred in several of these shelters. Such outbreaks are common and have been well described in the past. Early monitoring for, and recognition of, the outbreak allowed for implementation of aggressive infection control measures. However, these measures required intensive medical response team involvement. Little is known about how such outbreaks affect the medical teams responding to the incident.
Hypothesis/ProblemDescribe the impact of an infectious viral gastroenteritis outbreak within a single shelter on a responding medical team.
MethodsThe number of individuals staying in the single shelter each night (as determined by shelter staff) and the number of patients treated for symptoms of viral gastroenteritis were recorded each day. On return from deployment, members of a single responding medical team were surveyed to determine how many team members became ill during, or immediately following, their deployment.
ResultsThe shelter population peaked on November 5, 2012 with 811 individuals sleeping in the shelter. The first patients presented to the shelter clinic with symptoms of viral gastroenteritis on November 4, 2012, and the last case was seen on November 21, 2012. A total of 64 patients were treated for nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea over the 17-day period. A post-deployment survey was sent to 66 deployed medical team members and 45 completed the survey. Twelve (26.7%) of the team members who responded to the survey experienced symptoms of probable viral gastroenteritis. Team members reported onset of symptoms during deployment as well as after returning home. Symptoms started on days 4-8, 8-14, on the trip home, and after returning home in four, four, two, and two team members, respectively.
ConclusionMedical teams providing shelter care during viral gastroenteritis outbreaks are susceptible to contracting the virus while caring for patients. When responding to similar incidents in the future, teams should not only be ready to implement aggressive infectious control measures but also be prepared to care for team members who become ill.
,Gaither JB ,Page R ,Prather C ,Paavola F .Garrett AL Impact of a Hurricane Shelter Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreak on a Responding Medical Team . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –4 .
Emergency Food Supplies in Food Secure Households
- Devon L. Golem, Carol Byrd-Bredbenner
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- 01 July 2015, pp. 359-364
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Introduction
Limited food supply paired with reduced access to food during emergency disasters can lead to malnutrition. To date, research evaluating the adequacy of household emergency food supplies relies on self-reported data from surveys and has not been measured objectively in households in the United States. The main objective of this study was to describe household calorie availability and nutrient density in a normal situation and to project changes that could occur when emergencies (eg, natural disasters) restrict replenishment of food supplies and disrupt water and/or energy needed for food preparation and storage.
HypothesisThe calorie availability of the food supply within households in New Jersey (USA) is anticipated to be well above the recommended 3-day period. However, it is anticipated that the nutritional density of the food supply within these households will be negative. Additionally, the disaster-related factors that diminish the ability to consume stored food (eg, lack of water, power for cooking, and/or proper storage) will further reduce the caloric and nutritional adequacy of the household food supply.
MethodsThe household food supplies of 100 food secure families in New Jersey were inventoried at a non-emergency point in time. The number of days that the inventoried food supply would provide all household members 100% of the daily value (DV) for calories and other nutrients was determined. Additionally, the effects of water and power shortages on nutritional availability of household food supply were estimated.
ResultsThe households had an average of 33.16 days (SD=21.97; range=8.14-125.17 days) of calories at 100% DV for all household members. Lack of water, energy for cooking, or both would render a decrease in the total household calories by 28%, 35%, or 38%, respectively. Loss of power for greater than five days would reduce availability of household calories by 27%. A positive nutrient density was observed with and without the food-related resources of water and power.
ConclusionThe mean food supply within the sampled households exceeds the current emergency preparedness recommendations, even when considering specific nutrients and emergency-related factors that affect ability to consume the food supply. Cross-sectional observation of the household food supply of food secure families in New Jersey reveals adequate dietary-based emergency preparedness and low vulnerability to emergency-induced food insecurity.
,Golem DL .Byrd-Bredbenner C Emergency Food Supplies in Food Secure Households . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –6.
Factors Associated with Discussion of Disasters by Final Year High School Students: An International Cross-sectional Survey
- Tudor A. Codreanu, Antonio Celenza, Ali A. Rahman Alabdulkarim
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 06 July 2015, pp. 365-373
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Introduction
The effect on behavioral change of educational programs developed to reduce the community’s disaster informational vulnerability is not known. This study describes the relationship of disaster education, age, sex, and country-specific characteristics with students discussing disasters with friends and family, a measure of proactive behavioral change in disaster preparedness.
MethodsThree thousand eight hundred twenty-nine final year high school students were enrolled in an international, multi-center prospective, cross-sectional study using a pre-validated written questionnaire. In order to obtain information from different educational systems, from countries with different risk of exposure to disasters, and from countries with varied economic development status, students from Bahrain, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Romania, and Timor-Leste were surveyed. Logistic regression analyses examined the relationship between the likelihood of discussing disasters with friends and family (dependent variable) and a series of independent variables (age, gender, participation in school lessons about disasters, existence of a national disaster educational program, ability to list pertinent example of disasters, country's economic group, and disaster risk index) captured by the questionnaire or available as published data.
ResultsThere was no statistically significant relationship between age, awareness of one’s surroundings, planning for the future, and foreseeing consequences of events with discussions about potential hazards and risks with friends and/or family. The national educational budget did not have a statistically significant influence. Participants who lived in a low disaster risk and high income Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) country were more likely to discuss disasters. While either school lessons or a national disaster education program had a unique, significant contribution to the model, neither had a better predictive utility.
ConclusionsThe predictors (national disaster program, school lessons, gender, ability to list examples of disasters, country’s disaster risk index, and level of economic development), although significant, were not sufficient in predicting disaster discussions amongst teenagers.
,Codreanu TA ,Celenza A .Alabdulkarim AAR Factors Associated with Discussion of Disasters by Final Year High School Students: An International Cross-sectional Survey . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –9 .
Use of Community Assessments for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPERs) to Rapidly Assess Public Health Issues — United States, 2003-2012
- Tesfaye M. Bayleyegn, Amy H. Schnall, Shimere G. Ballou, David F. Zane, Sherry L. Burrer, Rebecca S. Noe, Amy F. Wolkin
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 July 2015, pp. 374-381
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Introduction
Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER) is an epidemiologic technique designed to provide quick, inexpensive, accurate, and reliable household-based public health information about a community’s emergency response needs. The Health Studies Branch at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides in-field assistance and technical support to state, local, tribal, and territorial (SLTT) health departments in conducting CASPERs during a disaster response and in non-emergency settings. Data from CASPERs conducted from 2003 through 2012 were reviewed to describe uses of CASPER, ascertain strengths of the CASPER methodology, and highlight significant findings.
MethodsThrough an assessment of the CDC’s CASPER metadatabase, all CASPERs that involved CDC support performed in US states and territories from 2003 through 2012 were reviewed and compared descriptively for differences in geographic distribution, sampling methodology, mapping tool, assessment settings, and result and action taken by decision makers.
ResultsFor the study period, 53 CASPERs were conducted in 13 states and one US territory. Among the 53 CASPERS, 38 (71.6%) used the traditional 2-stage cluster sampling methodology, 10 (18.8%) used a 3-stage cluster sampling, and two (3.7%) used a simple random sampling methodology. Among the CASPERs, 37 (69.9%) were conducted in response to specific natural or human-induced disasters, including 14 (37.8%) for hurricanes. The remaining 16 (30.1%) CASPERS were conducted in non-disaster settings to assess household preparedness levels or potential effects of a proposed plan or program. The most common recommendations resulting from a disaster-related CASPER were to educate the community on available resources (27; 72.9%) and provide services (18; 48.6%) such as debris removals and refills of medications. In preparedness CASPERs, the most common recommendations were to educate the community in disaster preparedness (5; 31.2%) and to revise or improve preparedness plans (5; 31.2%). Twenty-five (47.1%) CASPERs documented on the report or publications the public health action has taken based on the result or recommendations. Findings from 27 (50.9%) of the CASPERs conducted with CDC assistance were published in peer-reviewed journals or elsewhere.
ConclusionThe number of CASPERs conducted with CDC assistance has increased and diversified over the past decade. The CASPERs’ results and recommendations supported the public health decisions that benefitted the community. Overall, the findings suggest that the CASPER is a useful tool for collecting household-level disaster preparedness and response data and generating information to support public health action.
,Bayleyegn TM ,Schnall AH ,Ballou SG ,Zane DF ,Burrer SL ,Noe RS .Wolkin AF Use of Community Assessments for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPERs) to Rapidly Assess Public Health Issues — United States, 2003-2012 . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 -8.
Does the Implementation of an Advanced Life Support Quick Response Vehicle (QRV) in an Integrated Fire/EMS System Improve Patient Contact Response Time?
- Dustin W. Anderson, Harinder S. Dhindsa, Wen Wan, David Salot
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 May 2015, pp. 382-384
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Background
The current Fire/Emergency Medical Services (EMS) model throughout the United States involves emergency vehicles which respond from a primary location (ie, firehouse or municipal facility) to emergency calls. Quick response vehicles (QRVs) have been used in various Fire/EMS systems; however, their effectiveness has never been studied.
ObjectivesThe goal of this study was to determine if patient response times would decrease by placing an Advanced Life Support (ALS) QRV in an integrated Fire/EMS system.
MethodsResponse times from an integrated Fire/EMS system with an annual EMS call volume of 3,261 were evaluated over the three years prior to the implementation of this study. For a 2-month period, an ALS QRV staffed by a firefighter/paramedic responded to emergency calls during peak call volume hours of 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. The staging of this vehicle was based on historical call volume percentages using respective geocodes as well as system requirements during multiple emergency dispatches.
ResultsPrior to the study, the citywide average response time for the twelve months preceding was 5.44 minutes. During the study, the citywide average response time decreased to 4.09 minutes, resulting in a 27.62% reduction in patient response time.
ConclusionThe implementation of an ALS QRV in an integrated Fire/EMS system reduces patient response time. Having a QRV that is not staged continuously in a traditional fire station or municipal location reduces the time needed to reach patients. Also, using predictive models of historic call volume can aid Fire and EMS administrators in reduction of call response times.
,Anderson DW ,Dhindsa HS ,Wan W .Salot D Does the Implementation of an Advanced Life Support Quick Response Vehicle (QRV) in an Integrated Fire/EMS System Improve Patient Contact Response Time? Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –3 .
Prehospital Naloxone Administration as a Public Health Surveillance Tool: A Retrospective Validation Study
- Heather A. Lindstrom, Brian M. Clemency, Ryan Snyder, Joseph D. Consiglio, Paul R. May, Ronald M. Moscati
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 June 2015, pp. 385-389
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Background
Abuse or unintended overdose (OD) of opiates and heroin may result in prehospital and emergency department (ED) care. Prehospital naloxone use has been suggested as a surrogate marker of community opiate ODs. The study objective was to verify externally whether prehospital naloxone use is a surrogate marker of community opiate ODs by comparing Emergency Medical Services (EMS) naloxone administration records to an independent database of ED visits for opiate and heroin ODs in the same community.
MethodsA retrospective chart review of prehospital and ED data from July 2009 through June 2013 was conducted. Prehospital naloxone administration data obtained from the electronic medical records (EMRs) of a large private EMS provider serving a metropolitan area were considered a surrogate marker for suspected opiate OD. Comparison data were obtained from the regional trauma/psychiatric ED that receives the majority of the OD patients. The ED maintains a de-identified database of narcotic-related visits for surveillance of narcotic use in the metropolitan area. The ED database was queried for ODs associated with opiates or heroin. Cross-correlation analysis was used to test if prehospital naloxone administration was independent of ED visits for opiate/heroin ODs.
ResultsNaloxone was administered during 1,812 prehospital patient encounters, and 1,294 ED visits for opiate/heroin ODs were identified. The distribution of patients in the prehospital and ED datasets did not differ by gender, but it did differ by race and age. The frequency of naloxone administration by prehospital providers varied directly with the frequency of ED visits for opiate/heroin ODs. A monthly increase of two ED visits for opiate-related ODs was associated with an increase in one prehospital naloxone administration (cross-correlation coefficient [CCF]=0.44; P=.0021). A monthly increase of 100 ED visits for heroin-related ODs was associated with an increase in 94 prehospital naloxone administrations (CCF=0.46; P=.0012).
ConclusionsFrequency of naloxone administration by EMS providers in the prehospital setting varied directly with frequency of opiate/heroin OD-related ED visits. The data correlated both for short-term frequency and longer term trends of use. However, there was a marked difference in demographic data suggesting neither data source alone should be relied upon to determine which populations are at risk within the community.
,Lindstrom HA ,Clemency BM ,Snyder R ,Consiglio JD ,May PR .Moscati RM Prehospital Naloxone Administration as a Public Health Surveillance Tool: A Retrospective Validation Study . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –5 .
Impact of a Two-step Emergency Department Triage Model with START, then CTAS, on Patient Flow During a Simulated Mass-casualty Incident
- James S. Lee, Jeffrey M. Franc
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 24 June 2015, pp. 390-396
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Introduction
A high influx of patients during a mass-casualty incident (MCI) may disrupt patient flow in an already overcrowded emergency department (ED) that is functioning beyond its operating capacity. This pilot study examined the impact of a two-step ED triage model using Simple Triage and Rapid Treatment (START) for pre-triage, followed by triage with the Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS), on patient flow during a MCI simulation exercise.
Hypothesis/ProblemIt was hypothesized that there would be no difference in time intervals nor patient volumes at each patient-flow milestone.
MethodsPhysicians and nurses participated in a computer-based tabletop disaster simulation exercise. Physicians were randomized into the intervention group using START, then CTAS, or the control group using START alone. Patient-flow milestones including time intervals and patient volumes from ED arrival to triage, ED arrival to bed assignment, ED arrival to physician assessment, and ED arrival to disposition decision were compared. Triage accuracy was compared for secondary purposes.
ResultsThere were no significant differences in the time interval from ED arrival to triage (mean difference 108 seconds; 95% CI, -353 to 596 seconds; P=1.0), ED arrival to bed assignment (mean difference 362 seconds; 95% CI, -1,269 to 545 seconds; P=1.0), ED arrival to physician assessment (mean difference 31 seconds; 95% CI, -1,104 to 348 seconds; P=0.92), and ED arrival to disposition decision (mean difference 175 seconds; 95% CI, -1,650 to 1,300 seconds; P=1.0) between the two groups. There were no significant differences in the volume of patients to be triaged (32% vs 34%; 95% CI for the difference -16% to 21%; P=1.0), assigned a bed (16% vs 21%; 95% CI for the difference -11% to 20%; P=1.0), assessed by a physician (20% vs 22%; 95% CI for the difference -14% to 19%; P=1.0), and with a disposition decision (20% vs 9%; 95% CI for the difference -25% to 4%; P=.34) between the two groups. The accuracy of triage was similar in both groups (57% vs 70%; 95% CI for the difference -15% to 41%; P=.46).
ConclusionExperienced triage nurses were able to apply CTAS effectively during a MCI simulation exercise. A two-step ED triage model using START, then CTAS, had similar patient flow and triage accuracy when compared to START alone.
,Lee JS .Franc JM Impact of a Two-step Emergency Department Triage Model with START, then CTAS, on Patient Flow During a Simulated Mass-casualty Incident . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –7.
Needle Thoracostomy for Patients with Prolonged Transport Times: A Case-control Study
- Lori Weichenthal, Desiree Hansen Crane, Luke Rond, Conal Roche
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 July 2015, pp. 397-401
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Introduction
The use of prehospital needle thoracostomy (NT) is controversial. Some studies support its use; however, concerns exist regarding misplacement, inappropriate patient selection, and iatrogenic injury. Even less is known about its efficacy in situations where there is a delay to definitive care.
Hypothesis/AimTo determine any differences in survival of patients who underwent NT in the setting of prolonged versus short transport times, and to describe differences in mechanisms and complications between the two groups.
MethodsThis was a retrospective, matched, case-control study of trauma patients in a four county Emergency Medical Service (EMS) system from April 1, 2007 through April 1, 2013. This system serves an urban, rural, and wilderness catchment area. A prehospital database was queried for all patients in whom NT was performed, identifying 182 patients. When these calls were limited to those with prolonged transport times, the search was narrowed to 32 cases. A matched control group, based on age and gender, with short transport times was then created as a comparison. Data collected from prehospital and hospital records included: demographics; mechanism of injury; call status; response to NT; and final outcome. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted, as appropriate, to assess the primary outcome of survival and to further elucidate the descriptive data.
ResultsThere was no difference in survival between the case and control groups, either when evaluated with univariate (34% vs 25%; P=.41) or multivariate (odds ratio=0.99; 95% CI, 0.96-1.02; P=.57) analyses. Blunt trauma was the most common mechanism in both groups, but penetrating trauma was more common in the control group (30% vs 9%; P=.003). Patients in the control group were also more likely to have no vital signs on initial assessment (62% vs 31%; P=.003). More patients in the case group were described as having clinical improvement after NT (34% vs 19%; P=.03). No complications of NT were reported in either group.
ConclusionsThere was no significant difference in survival between patients with prolonged versus short transport times who underwent NT. Patients with prolonged transport times were more likely to have sustained blunt trauma, have vital signs on EMS arrival, and to have clinical improvement after NT.
,Weichenthal L ,Crane DH ,Rond L .Roche C Needle Thoracostomy for Patients with Prolonged Transport Times: A Case-control Study . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –5 .
Pneumonia Prevention during a Humanitarian Emergency: Cost-effectiveness of Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Conjugate Vaccine and Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in Somalia
- Lisa M. Gargano, Rana Hajjeh, Susan T. Cookson
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 June 2015, pp. 402-411
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Background
Pneumonia is a leading cause of death among children less than five years old during humanitarian emergencies. Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and Streptococcus pneumoniae are the leading causes of bacterial pneumonia. Vaccines for both of these pathogens are available to prevent pneumonia.
ProblemThis study describes an economic analysis from a publicly funded health care system perspective performed on a birth cohort in Somalia, a country that has experienced a protracted humanitarian emergency.
MethodsAn impact and cost-effectiveness analysis was performed comparing: no vaccine, Hib vaccine only, pneumococcal conjugate vaccine 10 (PCV10) only, and both together administered through supplemental immunization activities (SIAs). The main summary measure was the incremental cost per disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) averted. One-way sensitivity analysis was conducted for uncertainty in parameter values.
ResultsEach SIA would avert a substantial number of cases and deaths. Compared with no vaccine, the DALYs averted by two SIAs for two doses of Hib vaccine was US $202.93 (lower and upper limits: $121.80-$623.52), two doses of PCV10 was US $161.51 ($107.24-$227.21), and two doses of both vaccines was US $152.42 ($101.20-$214.42). Variables that influenced the cost-effectiveness for each strategy most substantially were vaccine effectiveness, case fatality rates (CFRs), and disease burden.
ConclusionsThe World Health Organization (WHO) defines a cost-effective intervention as costing one to three times the per capita gross domestic product (GDP; in 2011, for Somalia=US $112). Based on the presented model, Hib vaccine alone, PCV10 alone, or Hib vaccine and PCV10 given together in SIAs are cost-effective interventions in Somalia. The WHO/Strategic Advisory Group of Experts decision-making factors for vaccine deployment appear to have all been met: the disease burden is large, the vaccine-related risk is low, prevention in this setting is more feasible than treatment, the vaccine duration probably is sufficient for the vulnerable period of the child’s life, cost is reasonable, and herd immunity is possible.
,Gargano LM ,Hajjeh R .Cookson ST Pneumonia Prevention during a Humanitarian Emergency: Cost-effectiveness of Haemophilus Influenzae Type B Conjugate Vaccine and Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in Somalia . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 10 .
The Development of a Humanitarian Health Ethics Analysis Tool
- Veronique Fraser, Matthew R. Hunt, Sonya de Laat, Lisa Schwartz
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 11 June 2015, pp. 412-420
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Introduction
Health care workers (HCWs) who participate in humanitarian aid work experience a range of ethical challenges in providing care and assistance to communities affected by war, disaster, or extreme poverty. Although there is increasing discussion of ethics in humanitarian health care practice and policy, there are very few resources available for humanitarian workers seeking ethical guidance in the field. To address this knowledge gap, a Humanitarian Health Ethics Analysis Tool (HHEAT) was developed and tested as an action-oriented resource to support humanitarian workers in ethical decision making.
While ethical analysis tools increasingly have become prevalent in a variety of practice contexts over the past two decades, very few of these tools have undergone a process of empirical validation to assess their usefulness for practitioners.
MethodsA qualitative study consisting of a series of six case-analysis sessions with 16 humanitarian HCWs was conducted to evaluate and refine the HHEAT.
ResultsParticipant feedback inspired the creation of a simplified and shortened version of the tool and prompted the development of an accompanying handbook.
ConclusionThe study generated preliminary insight into the ethical deliberation processes of humanitarian health workers and highlighted different types of ethics support that humanitarian workers might find helpful in supporting the decision-making process.
,Fraser V ,Hunt MR ,de Laat S .Schwartz L The Development of a Humanitarian Health Ethics Analysis Tool . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 9 .
Case Report
Maxillofacial Injury—Not Always a Difficult Airway
- John Glasheen, David Hennelly, Stephen Cusack
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 May 2015, pp. 421-424
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The optimal method for securing the airway in injured patients is controversial. Maxillofacial injury has been shown to be a marker for difficult airway management; however, a delay in intubation may result in deterioration of intubating conditions due to further airway bleeding and swelling. Decisions on the timing and method of airway management depend on multiple factors, including patient characteristics, the skill set of the clinicians, and logistical considerations. This report describes the case of a multi-agency response to a motor-vehicle collision in a rural area in Ireland. One young male patient had sustained significant maxillofacial injuries, multiple limb injuries, and had a decreased level of consciousness. Further airway compromise occurred following extrication. Difficult intubation was predicted; however, abnormal jaw mobility from bilateral mandibular fractures enabled easy laryngoscopy and intubation. Although preparation must be made for difficult airway management in the setting of maxillofacial injury, appropriately trained and experienced practitioners should not be deterred from performing early intubation when indicated.
,Glasheen J ,Hennelly D .Cusack S Maxillofacial Injury—Not Always a Difficult Airway . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 –4 .
Special Report
Prolonged Living as a Refugee from the Area Around a Stricken Nuclear Power Plant Increases the Risk of Death
- Reiichiro Tanaka
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- 21 July 2015, pp. 425-430
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Although it is well known that the Great East Japan Earthquake (March 11, 2011) resulted in a large number of disaster-related deaths, it is not common knowledge that the number of disaster-related deaths continues to increase, even four years after the earthquake, in Fukushima Prefecture, where the nuclear power plant accident occurred. There has been a lack of a minute and critical analysis for the causes for this continuous increase. In this report, the causes for the increase in disaster-related deaths in Fukushima Prefecture were analyzed by aggregating and comparing multiple data released by public organizations (the Reconstruction Agency, the National Police Agency, and Fukushima Prefecture), which may also have implications for developing response strategies to other disasters. The disaster-related death rate, the dead or missing rate, and the refugee rate (the number of disaster-related deaths, dead or missing persons, and refugees per 1,000 people) in each prefecture in stricken areas, and also each city, county, town, and village in Fukushima Prefecture, were calculated and compared with each other. The populations which were used for the calculation of each death rate in the area were based on the number of dead victims who had lived in the area when the earthquake occurred, regardless of where they were at the time of their death. The disaster-related death rate was higher than the dead or missing rate in the area around a stricken nuclear power plant in Fukushima Prefecture. These areas coincide exactly with the Areas under Evacuation Orders because of unsafe radiation levels. The external and internal radiation doses of most of the victims of the Great East Japan Earthquake have appeared not to be so high to harm their health, until now. The psychological stress associated with being displaced from one’s home for a long time with an uncertain future may be the cause for these disaster-related deaths. There is an urgent need to recognize refugees’ stressful situations, which could even cause death, and to provide them with high-quality medical treatment, including care for their long-term mental health.
.Tanaka R Prolonged Living as a Refugee from the Area Around a Stricken Nuclear Power Plant Increases the Risk of Death . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 -6 .
Brief Report
Medication Administration in Critical Care Transport of Adult Patients with Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure
- Susan R. Wilcox, Mark S. Saia, Heather Waden, Susan J. McGahn, Michael Frakes, Suzanne K. Wedel, Jeremy B. Richards
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 16 July 2015, pp. 431-435
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Introduction
Critical care transport (CCT) teams must manage a wide array of medications before and during transport. Appreciating the medications required for transport impacts formulary development as well as staff education and training.
ProblemAs there are few data describing the patterns of medication administration, this study quantifies medication administrations and patterns in a series of adult CCTs.
MethodsThis was a retrospective review of medication administration during CCTs of patients with severe hypoxemic respiratory failure from October 2009 through December 2012 from referring hospitals to three tertiary care hospitals.
ResultsTwo hundred thirty-nine charts were identified for review. Medications were administered by the CCT team to 98.7% of these patients, with only three patients not receiving any medications from the team. Fifty-nine medications were administered in total with 996 instances of administration. Fifteen drugs were each administered to only one patient. The mean number of medications per patient was 4.2 (SD=1.8) with a mean of 1.9 (SD=1.1) drug infusions per patient.
ConclusionsThese results demonstrate that, even within a relatively homogeneous population of patients transferred with hypoxemic respiratory failure, a wide range of medications were administered. The CCT teams frequently initiated, titrated, and discontinued continuous infusions, in addition to providing numerous doses of bolused medications.
,Wilcox SR ,Saia MS ,Waden H ,McGahn SJ ,Frakes M ,Wedel SK .Richards JB Medication Administration in Critical Care Transport of Adult Patients with Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure . Prehosp Disaster Med.2015 ;30 (4 ):1 -5.
Front Cover (OFC, IFC) and matter
PDM volume 30 issue 4 Cover and Front matter
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- 12 August 2015, pp. f1-f8
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Back Cover (OBC, IBC) and matter
PDM volume 30 issue 4 Cover and Back matter
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- 12 August 2015, pp. b1-b5
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