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³ Armin Rosen, How the UN Caused a Massive Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, Business Insider (Apr. 9, 2015), at http://www.businessinsider.com.au/cholera-outbreak-in-haiti-and-the-un-2015-4/; see also Fault-Lines: Haiti in a Time of Cholera (Al Jazeera television broadcast Mar. 2, 2015); Unitedin Immunity: UN in the Dock over Haiti Cholera Outbreak (France 24 television broadcast Oct. 14, 2014); The UN Condemns Baby Doc but Exonerates Itself, Economist (Mar. 2, 2013), at http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21572819-un-condemns-baby-doc-exonerates-itself-double-standards/; How the UN Caused Haiti’s Cholera Crisis—and Won’t Be Held Responsible, Atlantic (Feb. 26, 2013), at http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/how-the-un-caused-haitis-cholera-crisis-and-wont-be-held-responsible/273526/.

⁴ UN Press Release, Central African Republic: Ban Vows ‘Decisive Action’ on Allegations of Sexual Abuse by UN Peacekeepers (Aug. 12, 2015), at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=51618.

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⁶ One of the foremost comparative treatises on due process notes that “there is no general blueprint to follow and the variety of approaches found in statutes is considerable.” Denis J. Galligan, Due Process and Fair Procedures: A Study of Administrative Procedures 315 (1996).

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¹⁰ [1964] AC 40.

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¹² Jerry Mashaw, Greed, Chaos and Governance 108 (1997); Scanlon, Thomas M., Due Process, in Due Process 94 (Pennock, J. Roland & Chapman, John W. eds., 1977)Google Scholar; Harlow, Carol & Rawlings, Richard, Law and Administration 621 (3d ed. 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ This expression deliberately mimics Fuller’s discussion of the related concept of adjudication. See Fuller, Lon, The Forms and Limits of Adjudication, 92 Harv. L. Rev. 353, 364 (1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁸ Another celebrated positivist, H. L. A. Hart, described procedural law as the guarantor of impartiality and objectivity in the application of legal rules. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept Of Law 156 (1961).

¹⁹ Stewart, supra note 8, at 1672, 1698.

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²⁷ Due process scholars have acknowledged the inadequacy of intuition as a normative foundation and have eschewed the value of a natural rights jurisprudence, which has been justly criticized for its intuitive assertions of fundamental fairness. See Mashaw, supra note 8, at 47, 182.

²⁸ Edmund Pincoffs, Due Process, Fraternity and a Kantian Injunction, in Due Process, supra note 12.

²⁹ Mashaw, supra note 8, at 216.

³⁰ Id. at 175–76, 185, 216–17.

³¹ Stewart, supra note 8, at 1759.

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³⁴ Philippe Nonet & Philip Selznick, Law and Society in Transition: Toward Responsive Law (1978); Lon Fuller, The Morality of Law (1969).

³⁵ Nonet & Selznick, supra note 34, at 56.

³⁶ See, e.g., Amy Gutmann & Dennis Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement (1996); Habermas, Jürgen, Between Facts and Norms: Contribution to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy (Rehg, William trans., 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ Allan, supra note 33, at 508 (emphasis added).

³⁸ This observation was made by Hans Corell during the discussion of”Is the Security Council Bound by Human Rights Law,” 103 ASIL PROC. 199 (2009).

³⁹ See, e.g., Bardo Fassbender, Targeted Sanctions and Due Process, para. 12.12 (2006); Van den Herik, Larissa, The Security Council’s Targeted Sanctions Regimes: In Need of Better Protection of the Individual, 20 Leiden J. Int’l Law 797, 806 – 07 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; International Commission of Jurists, Assessing Damage, Urging Action: Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counterterrorism and Human Rights 116–17 (2009); Forcese, Craig & Roach, Kent, Limping into the Future: The UN 1267 Terrorism Listing Process at the Crossroads, 42 Geo. Wash. Int’l L. Rev. 217, 265, 275 (2010)Google Scholar; Genser, Jared & Barth, Kate, When Due Process Concerns Become Dangerous: The Security Council’s 1267 Regime and the Need for Reform, 33 B.C. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 1, 37 (2010)Google Scholar; de Wet, Erika, Human Rights Considerations and the Enforcement of Targeted Sanctions in Europe: The Emergence of Core Standards of Judicial Protection, in Securing Human Rights?: Achievements and Challenges of the UN Security Council 169 (Fassbender, Bardo ed., 2011)Google Scholar; Guglielmo Verdirame, The UN and Human Rights: Who Guards the Guardians? (2011); Willis, Grant L., Security Council Targeted Sanctions, Due Process and the 1267 Ombudsperson, 42 Geo. J. Int’l Law 673, 737, 743– 45 (2011)Google Scholar; Ginsborg, Lisa & Scheinin, Martin, You Can’t Always Get What You Want: The Kadi II Conundrum and the Security Council 1267 Terrorist Sanctions Regime, 8 Essex Hum. Rts Rev. 7, 11–12, 19 (2011)Google Scholar.

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⁴¹ SC Res. 1904 (Dec. 17, 2009). The website for the 1267 Ombudsperson is at https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/ombudsperson.

⁴² The relevant sanctions regime (created by UN Security Council Resolution 1267 of October 15, 1999, and developed in subsequent resolutions) was initially known as the Al Qaeda and Taliban sanctions regime. In 2011, it was divided into two separate sanctions regimes, with the ombudsperson mandate restricted to the Al Qaeda regime. SC Res. 1998 (June 17, 2011); SCRes. 1999 (June 17, 2011). In 2015, the Al Qaeda regime and ombudsperson mandate were extended to encompass the Islamic State in Iraq and Levant (ISIL). SC Res. 2253 (Dec. 17, 2015).

⁴³ See Joined Cases C-584/10 P, C-593/10 P & C-595/10 P, Comm’n v. Kadi (Eur. Ct. Justice July 18, 2013) (Grand Chamber) [hereinafter Kadi II]; Al-Dulimi v. Switzerland, App. No. 5809/08, para. 119 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Nov. 26, 2013); Nada v. Switzerland, 2012 Eur. Ct. H.R. 1691, paras. 209 –14; HM Treasury v. Ahmed, [2010] UKSC 2, paras. 78 (Lord Hope), 149 (Lord Phillips), 181, 185 (Lord Rodger), 239, 248 (Lord Mance); Ben Emmerson (Special Rapporteur), Second Report on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms While Countering Terrorism, paras. 14, 20–21, UN Doc. A/67/396 (Sept. 26, 2012).

⁴⁴ Consider, for example, the repeated rejection of proposals by the Group of Likeminded States to extend the ombudsperson’s mandate. See UN Docs. S/PV.7285 (Oct. 23, 2014), S/PV.6964 (May 10, 2013), S/2012/805 (Nov. 9, 2012).

⁴⁵ I distinguish here courts that assess Security Council decision making under domestic or regional law, dis cussed infra as examples of the dignitarian model in action.

⁴⁶ Case T-315/01, Kadi v. Council, 2005 ECR II-3649 (Court of First Instance); see also HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43 (Lord Brown); UN Human Rights Comm., Sayadi v. Belgium, Communication No. 1472/2006, UN Doc. CCPR/C/94/D/1472/2006 (Dec. 29, 2008) (see, in particular, individual opinion (partly dissenting) of Nigel Rodley, Ivan Shearer, and Iulia Antoanella Motoc, and individual opinion (dissenting) of Ruth Wedgewood).

⁴⁷ Jose Alvarez, International Organizations as Law-Makers 630 (2005).

⁴⁸ See Cramér, Per, Recent Swedish Experiences with Targeted UN Sanctions: The Erosion of Trust in the Security Council, in Review of the Security Council by Member States (Wet, Erikade & Nollkaemper, André eds., 2003)Google Scholar; Paul Koring, Federal Lawyers Argue They Have No Obligation to Bring Abdelrazik Home, Globe & Mail (May 8, 2009).

⁴⁹ See, for example, the decision of the Administrative Appeals Board of the Turkish Council of State in Kadi v. Prime Ministry, Int’l L. Domestic CTS. 311 (TR 2007) (Feb. 22, 2007); Sayadi v. Belgium, supra note 45, at 27 (joint sep. op. Rodley, Shearer & Antoanella Motoc) (partly dissenting), 30 (diss. op. Wedgwood), 32 (sep. op. Shearer).

⁵⁰ See Kadi v. Council, supra note 46, paras. 268, 288; Sayadi v. Belgium, supra note 46, para. 10.8.

⁵¹ Kadi v. Council, supra note 46, paras. 218 –25.

⁵² Id., paras. 226 –31.

⁵³ Id., paras. 226 –29.

⁵⁴ Id., paras. 226–30. For criticism of this decision, see Milanovic, Marko, Norm Conflict in International Law: Whither International Law?, 20 Duke J. Comp. & Int’l L. 69, 91, 93 (2009)Google Scholar; Klabbers, Jan, Setting the Scene, in The Constitutionalization Of International Law 1 (Klabbers, Jan, Peters, Anne & Ulfstein, Geir eds., 2009)Google Scholar; Eckes, Christina, Judicial Review of European Anti-terrorism Measures—the Yusuf and Kadi Judgments of the Court of First Instance, 14 Eur. L.J. 74 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eeckhout, Piet, Community Terrorism Listings, Fundamental Rights and UN Security Council Resolutions: In Search of the Right Fit, 3 Eur. Const. L. Rev. 183, 195 (2007)Google Scholar; Defeis, Elizabeth, Targeted Sanctions, Human Rights, and the Court of First Instance of the European Community, 30 Fordham Int. L.J. 1449, 1454 (2006)Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Sept. 28, 2001.

⁵⁶ HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43, paras. 57–61 (Lord Hope).

⁵⁷ Id., paras. 136 –37 (Lord Phillips); cf. id., paras. 165, 170 (Lord Rodger).

⁵⁸ Id., paras. 225–31 (Lord Mance).

⁵⁹ Youssef v. Secretary of State, [2016] UKSC 3, paras. 48–50 (Lord Carnwath) (with agreement of Lords Neuberger, Mance, Wilson, and Sumption).

⁶⁰ John Hart Ely, Democracy and Distrust (1980); Fuller, supra note 13, at 392; see also Jones v. Ministry of Interior of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, [2006] UKHL 26, para. 63.

⁶¹ Michelman, supra note 21, at 130.

⁶² Higgins, Rosalyn, The Place of International Law in the Settlement of Disputes by the Security Council, 64 AJIL 1 (1970)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Koskenniemi, Martti, The Place of Law in Collective Security, 17 Mich. J. Int’l L. 455 (1996)Google Scholar.

⁶³ Delbrock, Jost, Functions and Powers: Article 24, in 1 The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary 446 (Simma, Bruno, Mosler, Hermann, Paulus, Andreas & Chaitidou, Eleni eds., 2002)Google Scholar (citation omitted).

⁶⁴ Dec. 19, 2006.

⁶⁵ Comment by Peter Scott, Director, Sanctions and Transnational Crime Section, Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Workshop: The UN Security Council, Sanctions and the Rule of Law, Australian National University, Dec. 14–15, 2011 (notes on file with author).

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⁶⁷ HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43, para. 192.

⁶⁸ Id., para. 203.

⁶⁹ Sayadi v. Belgium, supra note 45, at 27 (joint sep. op. Rodley, Shearer & Antoanella Motoc) (partly dissenting).

⁷⁰ Roberts, Anthea, Comparative International Law? The Role of National Courts in Creating and Enforcing International Law, 60 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 57, 73 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷¹ Joined Cases C-402/05 P & C-415/05 P, Kadi v. Council, [2008] ECR I–6351 (Grand Chamber) [hereinafter Kadi I]; see also Kadi v. Comm’n, 2010 ECR II-5177 (General Court).

⁷² Supra note 43.

⁷³ HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43; Nada v. Switzerland, supra note 43.

⁷⁴ A K, M, Q & G v. HM Treasury, [2008] EWCA 1187, para. 114, quoted with approval in HM Treasury v. Ahmed,supra note 43, paras. 4, 60, and Kadi v. Comm’n, supra note 71, para. 149; Abdelrazik v. Minister of Foreign Affairs, [2009] FC580, para. 53 (Can.). For other critical judicial comment, see HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43, paras. 6 (Lord Hope), 145, 147 (Lord Phillips), 192, 203 (Lord Brown).

⁷⁵ A K, M, Q & G v. HM Treasury, supra note 74, para. 114 (para. 18 of quoted material).

⁷⁶ See, e.g., Thirteenth Report of the 1267 Monitoring Team, supra note 2, para. 17; Ninth Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, Submitted Pursuant to Resolution 1822 (2008) Concerning Al- Qaida and the Taliban and Associated Individuals and Entities, para. 16, UN Doc. S/2009/245 (May 13, 2009); see also Special Research Report: UN Sanctions, supra note 40, at 14.

⁷⁷ This change has been noted by scholars such as Nico Krisch, Beyond Constitutionalism: The Pluralist Structure of Postnational Law (2010), de Búrca, Gráinne, The European Court of Justice and the International Legal Order After Kadi, 51 Harv. Int’l L. J. 1 (2010)Google Scholar, Halberstam, Daniel & Stein, Eric, The United Nations, the European Union and the King of Sweden: Economic Sanctions and Individual Rights in a Plural World Order, 46 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 13 (2009)Google Scholar, and Besson, Samantha, European Legal Pluralism After Kadi, 5 Eur. Const. L. Rev. 237 (2009)Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Stewart, supra note 8, at 1684–86, 1712; Pincoffs, supra note 28, at 179.

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⁸⁰ Krisch, Nico, The Pluralism of Global Administrative Law, 17 Eur. J. Int’l L. 247 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; John Dryzek, Deliberative Global Politics: Discourse and Democracy in A Divided World (2006); James Bohman, Democracy Across Borders (2007).

⁸¹ On which, see further Hovell, Devika, A Dialogue Model: The Role of the Domestic Judge in Security Council Decision-Making, 26 Leiden J. Int’l L. 579 (2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸² As the General Court recognized, the necessary consequence of the ECJ decision in Kadi I has been “to render that primacy [of Security Council resolutions] ineffective in the Community legal order.” Kadi v. Comm’n, supra note 71, para. 118.

⁸³ Supra note 43.

⁸⁴ Supra note 43.

⁸⁵ Twelfth Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Implementation Monitoring Team, Submitted Pursuant to Resolution 1989 (2011) Concerning Al-Qaida and Associated Individuals and Entities, UN Doc. S/2012/729, para. 33 (Oct. 1, 2012); Barrett, Richard, Al-Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions Threatened, Oct. 6, 2008, at http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2935Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Statute of the International Court of Justice, Art. 38(1).

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⁸⁸ KRISCH, supra note 77, at 12; Kingsbury, Benedict, Weighing Regulatory Rules and Decisions in National Courts, 2009 ACTA Juridica 90Google Scholar; Moran, Mayo, Shifting Boundaries: The Authority of International Law, in New Perspectives on the Divide Between National and International Law 163 (Nijman, Janne & Nollkaemper, Andre eds., 2007)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Cf. Alan Boyle & Christine Chinkin, The Making of International Law 300–01 (2007).

⁹⁰ For a depiction of the increasingly dialogic nature of the relationship between courts and legislatures in the domestic human rights context, see Hickman, Tom, Constitutional Dialogue, Constitutional Theories and the Human Rights Act, Pub. L. 303 (2005)Google Scholar, Roach, Kent, Dialogic Judicial Review and Its Critics, 23 Sup. Ct. L. Rev. (2d) 49 (2004)Google Scholar, and Hiebert, Janet L., Parliamentary Bills of Rights: An Alternative Model?, 69 Mod. L. Rev. 7 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹¹ Kadi I, supra note 71.

⁹² Id., para. 316.

⁹³ Id., para. 305

⁹⁴ Id., paras. 286–87

⁹⁵ Id., para. 288.

⁹⁶ Id.

⁹⁷ Halberstam & Stein, supra note 77, at 72; de Búrca, supra note 77.

⁹⁸ Isiksel, N.Türküler, Fundamental Rights in the EU After Kadi and Al Barakaat, 16 Eur. L.J. 551 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁹ Id. at 552.

¹⁰⁰ The constitutional ambition of the decision has been widely remarked on.

¹⁰¹ Kadi, Devika Hovell: King-Slayer or King-Maker? The Shifting Allocation of Decision-Making Power Between UN Security Council and Courts, 79 Mod. L. Rev. 147 (2016)Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁵ Forcese & Roach, supra note 39, at 217, 274.

¹⁰⁶ This “pluralism of pluralisms” draws on literature developed in relation to the EU as a means of theorizing about impact of the EU’s conflicting supremacy claims between national and European levels (adapted from KRISCH, supra note 77).

¹⁰⁷ Supra note 43, para. 134.

¹⁰⁸ Thomas Scanlon has recognized that this form of “due process” is not readily exportable to regimes outside the domestic context; doing so so depends on a minimal commitment to particular domestic institutional arrangements. Scanlon, Thomas M., Human Rights as a Neutral Concern, in The Difficulty of Tolerance: Essays in Political Philosophy 116 (Scanlon, Thomas M. ed., 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹¹ Id., para. 119 (citation omitted).

¹¹² Id., para. 120.

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¹¹⁴ Opinion of Advocate General Bot, Joined Cases C 584/10 P, C 593/10 P & C 595/10, paras. 85, 113 (Mar. 19, 2013).

¹¹⁵ BVerfG, May 29, 1974, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr-und Vorratstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel, 37 BVerfGE 271, 115, 140–42 (Ger.); BVerfG, Oct. 22, 1986, Wünsche Handelsgesellschaft v. Federal Republic of Germany, 73 BVerfGE 339 (Ger.). See further Tzanakopoulos, Antonios, The Solange Argument as a Justification for Disobeying the Security Council in the Kadi Judgments, in Kadi on Trial: A Multifaceted Analysis of the Kadi Judgment (Avbelj, Matej, Fontanelli, Filippo & Martinico, Giuseppe eds., 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹⁸ HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43.

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¹²⁰ Al Jedda v. Secretary of State for Defence, [2007] UKHL 58. A possible exception was Lord Mance, who alluded to a presumption (subsequently adopted by the European Court of Human Rights in Al Jedda) that measures implementing Security Council resolutions should be subject to “the basic rights of the individual.” Id., paras. 247, 249.

¹²¹ HM Treasury v. Ahmed, supra note 43, paras. 75–82 (Lord Hope, with agreement of Lords Walker and Hale), 145–56 (Lord Phillips), 178–86 (Lord Rodger, with agreement of Lord Hale).

¹²² Id., para. 45 (Lord Hope).

¹²³ Halberstam & Stein, supra note 77, at 24, 27.

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¹³² In fact, petitioners were assisted by legal counsel in twenty-six of the fifty-five cases processed by the ombudsperson to date. Eighth Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson, supra note 130, para. 7.

¹³³ Comments by Guy Martin at ”UN Sanctions, Human Rights and the Ombudsperson,” meeting at Chatham House, May 17, 2013 (notes on file with author). See https://www.chathamhouse.org/events/view/189305.

¹³⁴ Between the establishment of the Al Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions Committeein October 1999 and the end of 2014, the 1267 Committee held 45 formal (or public) meetings and 367 informal (or private) consultations, as reported in the Annual Reports of the 1267 Sanctions Committee between 2000 and 2014.

¹³⁵ Report of the Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1267 (1999) Concerning Al-Qaida and the Taliban and Associated Individuals and Entities Annual Report, at 10, UN Doc. S/2004/1039, annex (Dec. 31, 2004).

¹³⁶ See, e.g., Third Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1989, paras. 21–29 (2011), UN Doc. S/2012/49 (2012); Seventh Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2083, paras. 14–20 (2012), UN Doc. S/2014/73 (2014).

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¹⁴⁰ Id.

¹⁴¹ SC Res. 1989, para. 23 (Jun. 17, 2011).

¹⁴² Id., Annex II, para. 12.

¹⁴³ Thirteenth Report of the 1267 Monitoring Team, supra note 2, para. 12.

¹⁴⁴ UN Charter, Art. 94(2) (note, in particular, the interpretation in Medellin v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491 (2008)); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 16, July 17, 1998, 2187 UNTS 90; see also Carla Del Ponte & Chuck Sudetic, Madame Prosecutor: Confrontations With Humanity & #x2019;s Worst Criminals and the Culture of Impunity 60 (2009).

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¹⁴⁹ Buchanan & Keohane, supra note 125, at 429.

¹⁵⁰ UN Press Release, Press Conference by Security Council President (Feb. 2, 2010) (Ambassador Gérard Araud), at http://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2010/100202_Araud.doc.htm.

¹⁵¹ Kadi II, supra note 43, para. 125.

¹⁵² Fisher, Elizabeth, Transparency and Administrative Law: A Critical Evaluation, 63 Current Legal Probs. 272, 280 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order 220 (2004).

¹⁵³ Second Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1989, para. 26 (2011), UN Doc. S/2011/447 (2011).

¹⁵⁴ In the exceptional case, the ombudsperson has acknowledged that the petitioner was prejudiced as the relevant information was obtained at such a late stage that it could not be disclosed to the petitioner before preparation of the comprehensive report, and has invited comments from the petitioner with a view to deciding whether he meets the threshold for anew petition. Sixth Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2083, paras. 33–35 (2012), UN Doc. S/2013/452 (2013).

¹⁵⁵ Eighth Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson, supra note 130, para. 34.

¹⁵⁶ First Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1903, para. 33 (2009), UN Doc. S/2011/29 (2011).

¹⁵⁷ Third Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson, supra note 136, para. 7; Seventh Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson, supra note 136, para. 30.

¹⁵⁸ Some lawyers representing individuals indelisting proceedings have argued that this dialogue sheds little light on the nature of the secret allegations against their clients.

¹⁵⁹ SC Res. 1989, supra note 141, para. 25; see also Third Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson, supra note 136, para. 41.

¹⁶⁰ Third Report of the Office of the Ombudsperson, supra note 136, para. 42.

¹⁶¹ SC Res. 1989, supra note 141, para. 23.

¹⁶² SC Res. 1904, supra note 41, Annex II, para. 4.

¹⁶³ SC Res. 1904, supra note 41, para. 20.

¹⁶⁴ Pan-American Health Organization & World Health Organization, Cholera in the Americas—Situation Summary (Oct. 9, 2015), at http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&Itemid=270&gid=31956&lang=en.

¹⁶⁵ Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti 4, 27 (2011), at http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf.

¹⁶⁶ Id. at 23.

¹⁶⁷ Lantagne, Daniele, Nair, G. Balakrish, Lanata, Claudio F. & Cravioto, Alejandro, The Cholera Outbreak in Haiti: Where and How Did It Begin?, in Cholera Outbreaks 162, 180 (Nair, G. Balakrish & Takeda, Yoshifumi eds., 2014)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁸ Governing After Crisis: The Politics of Investigation, Accountability and Learning (Arjen Boin, Allan McConnell & Paul ‘t Hart eds., 2008).

¹⁶⁹ Kuipers, Sanneke & Hart, Paul ‘t, Accounting for Crises, in The Oxford Handbook of Public Accountability 589 (Bovens, Mark, Goodin, Robert E. & Schillemans, Thomas eds., 2014)Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ William Booth, UN Troops Assaulted, Blamed for Outbreak, Wash. Post, Nov. 16, 2010, at A9.

¹⁷¹ UN Haiti Cholera Panel Avoids Blaming Peacekeepers, Reuters (May 5, 2011).

¹⁷² UN Press Release, Secretary-General, upon Receiving Experts’ Report on Source of Haiti Cholera Outbreak, Announces Intention to Name Follow-up Task Force (May 4, 2011), at http://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sgsm13543.doc.htm.

¹⁷³ United Nations Follow-Up to the Recommendations of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Out break in Haiti (June 10, 2014), at http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/Follow-up-to-Recommendations-of-IPE.pdf.

¹⁷⁴ Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti, Petition for Relief (Nov. 3, 2011), at http://ijdh.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/englishpetitionREDACTED.pdf.

¹⁷⁵ Letter from Patricia O’Brien, Under Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, to Brian Concannon, Director, Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti (Feb. 21, 2013), at http://opiniojuris.org/wp-content/uploads/LettertoMr.BrianConcannon.pdf.

¹⁷⁶ Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, Sec. 2, Feb. 13, 1946, 1 UNTS 15 [hereinafter General Convention].

¹⁷⁷ Letter from Patricia O’Brien, Under Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, to Brian Concannon, Director, Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti, at 1 (July 5, 2013), at http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/20130705164515.pdf.

¹⁷⁸ Class Action Complaint, Georges v. United Nations, No. 1: 13-cv-7146 (S.D.N.Y. filed Oct. 9, 2013), at http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Cholera-Complaint.pdf; Class Action Complaint, Laventure v. United Nations, No. 14-cv-1611 (E.D.N.Y. filed Mar. 11, 2014), at https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/1073738/140311-laventure-v-un-filed-complaint-2.pdf (case stayed pending Second Circuit decision in Georges v. United Nations, Mar. 24, 2015); Class Action Complaint, Petit-Homme Jean Robert v. United Nations, No. 1:14-cv-01545 (S.D.N.Y. filed Mar. 6, 2014) (case dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, Jan. 26, 2015).

¹⁷⁹ José Alvarez, The United Nations in the Time of Cholera, AJIL Unbound (Apr. 4, 2014).

¹⁸⁰ For a dismal example, see the interview with the deputy spokesperson for the UN secretary-general in the documentary Fault-Lines, supra note 3.

¹⁸¹ Mégret, Frédéric, La responsabilité des Nations Unies aux temps du cholera, 47 Revue Belge de Droit International 161 (2013)Google Scholar; Alvarez, supra note 179.

¹⁸² Huber, Valeska, The Unification of the Globe by Disease? The International Sanitary Conferences on Cholera, 1851–1894, 49 Hist. J. 453 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸³ Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations, with Commentaries, in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Sixty-Third Session, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., Supp. No. 10, at 69, 136–38 (Article 43 and Commentary), 149 (Article 50 and Commentary), UN Doc, A/66/10 (2011) [hereinafter ILC Articles].

¹⁸⁴ The letter, dated September 25, 2014, is referenced in Letter from Pedro Medrano, UN Assistant Secretary-General, to Ms. Farha, Mr. Galln, Mr. Pras and Ms. de Albuquerque, para. 1 (Nov. 25, 2014), at https://spdb.ohchr.org/hrdb/28th/Haiti_ASG_25.11.14_(3.2014).pdf.

¹⁸⁵ Id., paras. 59, 60.

¹⁸⁶ General Convention, supra note 176, Sec. 2.

¹⁸⁷ Brzak v. United Nations, 597 F.3d 107, para. 112 (2d Cir. Mar. 2, 2010); Manderlier v. Organisation des Nations Unies, Pasicrisie Belge 1966, III, at 103, 45 ILR 446 (Civil Trib. Brussels 1966) (Belg.); Mothers of Srebrenica Ass’n v. Netherlands, paras. 4.3.6, 4.3.14, Sup. Ct. Neth. Apr. 13, 2012, No. 10/04437; Leonardo DíazGonzález (Special Rapporteur), Fourth Report on Relations Between States and International Organizations (Second Part of the Topic), paras. 109–10, UN Doc. A/CN.4/424 & Corr. 1.

¹⁸⁸ Agreement Between the United Nations and the Government of Haiti Concerning the Status of the United Nations Operation in Haiti, para. 55, July 9, 2004 [hereinafter UN-Haiti SOFA], at http://www.ijdh.org/2004/07/archive/agreement-between-the-united-nations-and-the-government-of-haiti-concerning-the-status-of-the-united-nations-operation-in-haiti/.

¹⁸⁹ General Convention, supra note 176, Sec. 30.

¹⁹⁰ Haiti: Still Waiting for Recovery, Economist (Jan. 5, 2013).

¹⁹¹ Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations, with Commentaries, supra note 183, Art. 5.

¹⁹² Gaillard, Emmanuel & Pingel-Lenuzza, Isabelle, International Organisations and Immunity from Jurisdiction: To Restrict or to Bypass, 51 Int’l & Comp. L. Q. 1, 1 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹³ Freedman, Rosa, UN Immunity or Impunity? A Human Rights Based Challenge, 25 Eur. J. Int’l L. 239, 245–47 (2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ryngaert, Cedric, The Immunity of International Organizations Before Domestic Courts: Recent Trends, 7 Int’l Org. L. Rev. 121, 148 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gaillard & Pingel-Lenuzza, supra note 192, at 2–3; August Reinisch, International Organizations Before National Courts 366, 393 (2000).

¹⁹⁴ Though the ECHR ultimately upheld the immunity of the European Space Agency in Waite & Kennedy v. Germany, App. No. 26083/94,30Eur. Ct. H.R. 261 (1999), itheld that”a material factor” tobetaken into account was “whether the applicants had available to them reasonable alternative means to protect effectively their rights under the [ECHR].” Id., para. 52.

¹⁹⁵ General Convention, supra note 176, Sec. 29; see also UN-Haiti SOFA, supra note 188, para. 55.

¹⁹⁶ Ryngaert, supra note 193.

¹⁹⁷ Mégret, supra note 181, at 166 (translation by author).

¹⁹⁸ Center for Economic and Policy Research, Ban Ki-moon Explains to Congress Why the UN Won’t Be Held Accountable for Cholera in Haiti (Feb. 27, 2015) (quoting letter dated Feb. 19, 2015, from the UN secretary-general to members of the U.S. Congress), at http://www.cepr.net/blogs/haiti-relief-and-reconstruction-watch/ban-ki-moon-explains-to-congress-why-the-un-wont-be-held-accountable-for-cholera-in-haiti/.

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²⁰³ Schmalenbach, Kirsten, Third Party Liability of International Organizations, 10 J. Int’l Peacekeeping 33, 42 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Taylor, Kate Nancy, Shifting Demands in International Institutional Accountability, 2014 Netherlands Y.B. Int’l L. 157, 165– 66Google Scholar.

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²⁰⁵ Mégret, supra note 181, at 166 (translation by author).

²⁰⁶ Report of the Secretary-General, Review of the Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations, para. 15, UN doc. A/C.5/49/65 (Apr. 24, 1995).

²⁰⁷ Ban Ki-moon Explains to Congress Why the UN Won’t Be Held Accountable for Cholera in Haiti, supra note 198.

²⁰⁸ See, e.g., Bisson v. United Nations, No. 06 Civ. 6352 (PAC)(AJP), 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 9723 (S.D.N.Y Feb. 11, 2008).

²⁰⁹ Supra note 194.

²¹⁰ Freedman, supra note 193, at 241, 245.

²¹¹ Moreover, the ECHR has backed down from the promise of Waite and Kennedy in subsequent judgments. See Stichting Mothers of Srebrenica v. Netherlands, App. No. 65542/12, para. 139(f) (Eur. Ct. H.R. June 11, 2013).

²¹² Peter Bekker, The Legal Position of Intergovernmental Organizations: A Functional Necessity Analysis of Their Legal Status and Immunities 39 (1994); see also Boon, Kristen, The United Nations as Good Samaritan: Immunity and Responsibility, 16 CHI. J. Int’l L. (2015)Google Scholar; Gaillard & Pingel-Lenuzza, supra note 192; C. F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations 316, 318 (2d ed. 2005).

²¹³ 13 Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization 705 (1945) (emphasis added).

²¹⁴ Singer, Michael, Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organizations: Human Rights and Functional Necessity Concerns, 36 VA. J. Int’l L. 53, 108 (1995)Google Scholar; Gaillard & Pingel-Lenuzza, supra note 192, at 8.

²¹⁵ Roger O’Keefe, Once Upon a Time There Was a Gap..., EJIL: TALK! (Dec. 8, 2010), at http://www.ejiltalk.org/once-upon-a-time-there-was-a-gap-.../.

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²²¹ Class Action Complaint, Georges v. United Nations, supra note 178. In a January 2015 decision, the Southern District upheld the United Nations’ absolute immunity under the General Convention, Georges v. United Nations, 84 F.Supp.3d 246 (S.D.N.Y. 2015). The decision has been appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, though the court has not handed down its decision at the time of writing.

²²² See, e.g., Boon, supra note 212; Freedman, supra note 193.

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²²⁴ Class Action Complaint, Georges v. United Nations, supra note 178, at 8.

²²⁵ Carol Harlow, State Liability: Tort Law and Beyond 50–51 (2004).

²²⁶ Coffee, John C. Jr., Litigation Governance: Taking Accountability Seriously, 110 Colum. L. Rev. 288, 290 (2010)Google Scholar.

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²²⁹ Richard A. Nagareda, Mass Torts in a World of Settlement, at ix–x (2007).

²³⁰ Beatrice Lindstrom, Shannon Jonsson & Gillian Soddard Leatherberry, Access to Justice for Victims of Cholera in Haiti: Accountability for UN Torts in US Court, B.U. Int’l L.J. (Nov. 3, 2014), at http://www.bu.edu/ilj/2014/11/03/access-to-justice-for-victims-of-cholera-in-haiti-accountability-for-u-n-torts-in-u-s-court/.

²³¹ For the use of law in campaigning, see Carol Harlow & Richard Rawlings, Pressure Through Law (1992).

²³² International Law Association, Accountability of International Organizations: Final Report 21 (2004).

²³³ See, e.g., Philosophical Foundations of the Law of Torts, supra note 223.

²³⁴ Ernest J. Weinrib, The Idea Of Private Law (1995) (especially chapters 6 and 7); Allan Beever, Rediscovering the Law of Negligence (2007); Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (2007); Wright, Richard W., Substantive Corrective Justice, 77 IOWA L. Rev. 625 (1992)Google Scholar.

²³⁵ Guido Calabresi, The Cost of Accidents (1970); Richard Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (8th ed. 2014).

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²³⁷ Cane, supra note 223, at 149.

²³⁸ Id.

²³⁹ Harlow, supra note 225, at 30.

²⁴⁰ Id. at 26–27.

²⁴¹ 28 U.S.C. §1350.

²⁴² Rosa Freedman & Nicolas Lemay-Hebert, Towards an Alternative Interpretation of UN Immunity: A Human Rights-Based Approach to the Haiti Cholera Case, Questions Int’l L. (July 27, 2015), at http://www.qil-qdi.org/towards-an-alternative-interpretation-of-un-immunity-a-human-rights-based-approach-to-the-haiti-cholera-case/.

²⁴³ Harlow, supra note 225, at 17.

²⁴⁴ In the United States, the Federal Tort Claims Act has been describedas “a limited waiver of the United States’ sovereign immunity.” See Figley, Paul F., Understanding the Federal Tort Claims Act: A Different Metaphor, 44 Tort Trial & Ins. Prac. L.J. 1105, 1106 (2009)Google Scholar. In the United Kingdom, judges have adopted a noninterventionist, restrictive approach to establishing duties of care in respect of public bodies. Duncan Fairgrieve, State Liability in Tort: a Comparative Law Study 64 (2003).

²⁴⁵ Sandra Fredman, Human Rights Transformed: Positive Rights and Positive Duties (2008).

²⁴⁶ du Bois, supra note 236, at 595.

²⁴⁷ Id. at 603.

²⁴⁸ Weinrib, supra note 234, at 80.

²⁴⁹ George P. Fletcher, Tort Liability for Human Rights Abuses 9 (2008).

²⁵⁰ Cane, supra note 223, at 165.

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²⁵² Spigelman, James J., Negligence: The Last Outpost of the Welfare State, 76 Austl. L. J. 432 (2002)Google Scholar.

²⁵³ The UN secretary-general proposed this rationale for limiting liability in his reports Administrative and Budgetary Aspects of the Financing of the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, UN Doc. A/51/389 (Sept. 20, 1996), and Agenda Item 140(a): Administrative and Budgetary Aspects of the Financing of the United Nations Peacekeeping Operation, UN Doc. A/51/903 (May 21, 1997), both of which were cited with approval in General Assembly Resolution 52/247 (July 17, 1998) on limiting third-party liability.

²⁵⁴ Boon, supra note 212, at 371.

²⁵⁵ This figure represents the “total net budget,” including the “regular budget” of U.S. $5.6 billion and “extra-budgetary” expenditures such as support, substantive, and operational activities. Proposed Programme Budget for the Biennium 2016–2017, at 25, UN Doc. A/70/6 (May 15, 2015).

²⁵⁶ Hensler, Deborah R., As Time Goes By: Asbestos Litigation After Amchem and Ortiz, 80 Tex. L. Rev. 1899, 1904, 1915, 1923 (2002)Google Scholar.

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²⁵⁹ Anufrijeva v. Southwark London Borough Council, [2003] EWCA (Civ) 1406, para. 56 (Lord Woolf, CJ) (citing David Scorey & Tim Eicke, Human Rights Damages: Principles and Practice, para. A4-036 (2001)).

²⁶⁰ Model Status-of-Forces Agreement for Peace-Keeping Operations, annex, UN Doc. A/45/594 (1990).

²⁶¹ Human Rights Watch, Better Late Than Never: Enhancing the Accountability of International Institutions in Kosovo 18 (June 14, 2007), at https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/kosovo0607web.pdf. See also criticism by the European Commission on Democracy Through Law (VeniceCommission), Opinionon Human Rights in Kosovo: Possible Establishment of Review Mechanisms 13–14 (2004).

²⁶² Rashkow, Bruce C., Immunity of the United Nations: Practice and Challenges, 10 Int’l Org. L. Rev. 332, 340 (2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Administrative and Budgetary Aspects of the Financing of the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, supra note 253, paras. 20–25.

²⁶³ Administrative and Budgetary Aspects of the Financing of the United Nations Peacekeeping Operation, supra note 253, para. 10.

²⁶⁴ Kingsbury, Benedict & Donaldson, Megan, From Bilateralism to Publicness in International Law, in From Bilateralism to Community Interest: Essays in Honour of Bruno Simma 81 (Fastenrath, Ulrich, Geiger, Rudolf, Khan, Daniel-Erasmus, Paulus, Andreas, von Schorlemer, Sabine & Vedder, Christoph, 2010)Google Scholar.

²⁶⁵ Franck, supra note 15, at 480.

²⁶⁶ Fisher, Elizabeth, The European Union in the Age of Accountability, 24 Oxford J. Legal Stud. 495, 496 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶⁷ Id. at 510 (discussing Carol Harlow, Accountability in the European Union (2002) and Accountability and Legitimacy in the European Union (Anthony Arnull & Daniel Wincott eds., 2002).

²⁶⁸ Buchanan & Keohane, supra note 125, at 427.

²⁶⁹ Ian Johnstone’s model of an “interpretive community” as three concentric circles is persuasive. Ian John Stone, The Power of Deliberation: International Law, Politics and Organizations 7, 41 (2011).

²⁷⁰ Daugirdas, Kristina, Reputation and the Responsibility of International Organizations, 25 Eur. J. Int’l L. 991 (2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁷¹ Id. at 1007.

²⁷² Deborah Sontag, Global Failures on a Haitian Epidemic, N.Y. Times, Apr. 1, 2012, at A1.

²⁷³ Fisher, supra note 266, at 495.

²⁷⁴ I have borrowed this terminology from Kingsbury & Donaldson, supra note 264, at 84.

²⁷⁵ See supra note 34 and accompanying text.

²⁷⁶ Jutta Brunnée & Stephen J. Toope, Legitimacy and Legality in International Law (2010).

²⁷⁷ Johnstone, supra note 269.

²⁷⁸ Nonet & Selznick, supra note 34, at 100.

²⁷⁹ Hoffmann, Florian & Mégret, Frédéric, Fostering Human Rights Accountability: An Ombudsperson for the United Nations?, 11 Global Governance 43 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schrijver, Nico, Beyond Srebrenica and Haiti: Exploring Alternative Remedies Against the United Nations, 10 Int’l Org. L. Rev. 588 (2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸⁰ These elements are drawn from the literature on public accountability, including the Oxford Hand Book of Public Accountability, supra note 169, and Anne Davies, Accountability: A Public Law Analysis of Government by Contract (2011).

²⁸¹ I draw these values from Pablo de Greiff’s broad conception of justice in Justice and Reparations, in The Handbook of Reparations 451 (Pablo de Greiff ed., 2006).

²⁸² See, e.g., Habermas, Juürgen, Why Europe Needs a Constitution, 11 New Left Rev. 8 (2001)Google Scholar; John Dryzek, Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations (2000); Bohman, James, International Regimes and Democratic Governance: Political Equality and Influence in Global Institutions, 75 Int’l Aff. 499 (1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸³ Johnstone, supra note 269, at 22.

²⁸⁴ See sources cited in Dannenbaum, Tom, Translating the Standard of Effective Control into a System of Effective Accountability, 51 Harv. Int’l L. J. 113, 121 (2010)Google Scholar.

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²⁸⁷ de Greiff, supra note 281, at 460–61.

²⁸⁸ Theo Van Boven, Introductory Note: Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (2005), at http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/ga_60-147/ga_60-147.html.

²⁸⁹ Richard Falk, Reparations, International Law and Global Justice, in The Handbook of Reparations, supra note 281, at 478, 491. For example, it is clear that most human rights treaties (and indeed, scholarship) recognizing a right to judicial compensation are configured to redress human rights violations on an individualized basis rather than en masse.

²⁹⁰ de Greiff, supra note 281, at 459.

²⁹¹ See Falk’s suggestions for a UN voluntary fund or “Tobin tax” on activities that pollute the commons. Falk, supra note 289, at 498.

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