Akbarian, S., Kim, J. J., Potkin, S. G., et al. (1995). Gene expression for glutamic acid decarboxylase is reduced without loss of neurons in prefrontal cortex of schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 258–66.Google Scholar

Allen, R. L., Cooney, J. M., & Lawlor, B. A. (1994). The use of risperidone, an atypical neuroleptic, in Lewy body disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 415–17.Google Scholar

Almeida, O. P., Howard, R. J., Levy, R., & David, A. S. (1995). Psychotic states arising in late life (late paraphrenia): The role of risk factors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 215–28.Google Scholar

Altamura, C. & Elliott, T. (2003). Schizophrenia in the elderly: A special case requiring special management?European Psychiatry, 18, 46–53.Google Scholar

Alvir, J. M. & Lieberman, J. A. (1994). Agranulocytosis: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55(Suppl. B), 137–8.Google Scholar

Andreasen, N. C. (1987). The diagnosis of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13(1), 25–38.Google Scholar

Angst, J. (1988). European long-term follow-up studies of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 14(4), 501–13.Google Scholar

Arnold, S. E. (2001). Contributions of neuropathology to understanding schizophrenia in late life. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9(2), 69–76.Google Scholar

Arnold, S. E. & Trojanowski, J. Q. (1996). Cognitive impairment in elderly schizophrenia: A dementia (still) lacking distinctive histopathology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 22(1), 5–9.Google Scholar

Arnold, S. E., Lee, V. M. Y., Gur, R. E., & Trojanowski, J. Q. (1991). Abnormal expression of two microtubule-associated proteins (MAP2 and MAP5) in specific subfields of the hippocampal formation in schizophrenia. Neurobiology, 88, 10850–54.Google Scholar

Barak, Y., Knobler, C. Y., & Aisenberg, D. (2004). Suicide attempts amongst elderly schizophrenia patients: A 10-year case-control study. Schizophrenia Research, 71(1), 77–81.Google Scholar

Bartels, S. J. (2004). Caring for the whole person: Integrated health care for older adults with severe mental illness and medical comorbidity. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52(Suppl. 1), 249–57.Google Scholar

Beasley, C. M. Jr., Tollefson, G. D., & Tran, P. V. (1997). Safety of olanzapine. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58(Suppl. 10), 13–17.Google Scholar

Blyler, C. R. & Gold, J. M. (2002). Cognitive effects of typical antipsychotic medication treatment: Another look. In Scharma, T. & Harvey, P. D., eds., Cognition and Schizophrenia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 241–65.

Brier, A., Schreiber, J. L., Dyer, J., & Pickar, D. (1992). Course of illness and predictors of outcome in chronic schizophrenia: Implications for pathophysiology. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161(Suppl. 18), 38–43.Google Scholar

Cannon, T. D., Kaprio, J., Lonnqvist, J., Huttunen, M., & Koskenvuo, M. (1998). The genetic epidemiology of schizophrenia in a Finnish twin cohort: A population-based modeling study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 67–74.Google Scholar

Carpenter, W. T. & Kirkpatrick, B. (1988). The heterogeneity of the long-term course of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 14, 645–52.Google Scholar

Chan, Y., Parisier, S. E., & Neufeld, G. (1999). Atypical antipsychotics in older adults. Pharmacotherapy, 19, 811–82.Google Scholar

Ciompi, L. (1980). Catamnestic long-term study on the course of life and aging of schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 6(4), 606–18.Google Scholar

Cohen, C. I. (1990). Outcome of schizophrenia into later life: An overview. Gerontologist, 30, 790–97.Google Scholar

Cohen, C. I. (1995). Studies of the course and outcome of schizophrenia into later life. Psychiatric Services, 46(9), 877–9.Google Scholar

Cohen, C. I., Cohen, G. D., Blank, K., et al. (2000). Schizophrenia and older adults. An overview: Directions for research and policy. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 19–28.Google Scholar

Cohler, B. J. & Ferrono, C. L. (1987). Schizophrenia and the adult life-course. In Miller, M. E. & Cohen, G. D., eds., Schizophrenia and Aging. New York: Guilford, pp. 189–99.

Comaty, J. E. & Advokat, C. (2001). Implications for the use of atypical antipsychotics in the elderly. Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 7(4), 285–309.Google Scholar

Corey-Bloom, J., Jernigan, T., Archibald, S., Harris, M. J., & Jeste, D. V. (1995). Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in late-life schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 447–9.Google Scholar

Crespo-Facorro, B., Piven, M. L., & Schultz, S. K. (1999). Psychosis in late life: How does it fit into current diagnostic criteria?American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 624–9.Google Scholar

Davidson, M., Harvey, P. D., Powchik, P., et al. (1995). Severity of symptoms in chronically institutionalized geriatric schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(2), 197–207.Google Scholar

Davidson, M., Harvey, P. D., Vervarcke, J., et al. (2000). A long-term, multicenter, open-label study of risperidone in elderly patients with psychosis. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 506–14.Google Scholar

DSM-IV (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Dohrenwend, B. P. & Dohrenwend, B. S. (1980). Psychiatric disorders and susceptibility to stress. In Robins, L. N., Clayton, P. J., & Wing, J. K., eds., The Social Consequences of Psychiatric Illness. New York: Brunner-Mazel, pp. 183–97.

Finkel, S. I. (2004). Risperidone questioned as dementia first-line treatment. Geriatrics, 59(2), 11–12.Google Scholar

Gregory, C. & McKenna, P. (1994). Pharmacological management of schizophrenia in older patients. Drugs and Aging, 5, 254–62.Google Scholar

Hafner, H. & an der Heidern, W. (1997). Epidemiology of schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42(2), 139–51.Google Scholar

Hafner, H., Maurer, K., Loffler, W., & Riecher-Rossler, A. (1993). The influence of age and sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 80–86.Google Scholar

Hafner, H., Hambrecht, W., Loffler, P., Munk-Jorgensen, R., & Reicher-Rossler, A. (1998). Is schizophrenia a disorder of all ages? A comparison of first episodes and early course across the life cycle. Psychological Medicine, 28(2), 351–65.Google Scholar

Harris, M. J. & Jeste, D. V. (1988). Late onset schizophrenia: An overview. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 14, 39–55.Google Scholar

Harvey, P. D. (2001). Cognitive and functional impairments in elderly patients with schizophrenia: A review of the recent literature. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 58–68.Google Scholar

Harvey, P. D., Lombardi, J., Leibman, M., et al. (1997a). Age-related differences in formal thought disorder in chronically hospitalized schizophrenic patients: A cross-sectional study across nine decades. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 205–10.Google Scholar

Harvey, P. D., Sukhodolsky, D., Parrella, M., White, L., & Davidson, M. (1997b). The association between adaptive and cognitive deficits in geriatric chronic schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Research, 27(2–3), 211–18.Google Scholar

Harvey, P. D., Moriarty, P. J., Serper, M. R., Schnur, E., & Lieber, D. (2000). Practice-related improvement in information processing with novel antipsychotic treatment. Schizophrenia Research, 46, 139–48.Google Scholar

Harvey, P. D., Heaton, R. K., Palmer, B., et al. (2002). Stability of cognitive impairment in elderly schizophrenic patients receiving conventional antipsychotic treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63, 1065.Google Scholar

Harvey, P. D., Napolitano, J. A., Mao, L., & Charabawi, G. (2003). Comparative effects of risperidone and olanzapine on cognition in elderly patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 820–29.Google Scholar

Haug, J. O. (1962). Pneumoencephalographic studies in mental disease. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. 165(38), 11–101.Google Scholar

Heaton, R. K. & Drexler, M. (1987). Clinical neuropsychological findings in schizophrenia and aging. In Miller, N., & Cohen, G., eds., Schizophrenia and Aging. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 145–161.

Heaton, R., Paulsen, J. S., McAdams, L. A., et al. (1994). Neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia: Relationship to age, chronicity and dementia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 469–76.Google Scholar

Howard, R., Rabins, P. V., Seeman, M. V., & Jeste, D. V., & The International Late-Onset Schizophrenia Group (2000). Late-onset schizophrenia and very-late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis: An international consensus. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 172–8.Google Scholar

Jeste, D. V. & McClure, F. S. (1997). Psychoses: Diagnosis and treatment in the elderly. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 76, 53–70.Google Scholar

Jeste, D. V., Lacro, J. P., Gilbert, P. L., Kline, J., & Kline, N. (1993). Treatment of late-life schizophrenia with neuroleptics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 817–30.Google Scholar

Jeste, D. V., Lohr, J. B., Eastham, J. H., Rockwell, E., & Caligiuri, M. P. (1998a). Adverse neurobiological effects of long-term use of neuroleptics: Human and animal studies. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 32, 201–14.Google Scholar

Jeste, D. V., Palmer, B. W., & Harris, M. J. (1998b). Early- versus late-onset schizophrenia: Is it time to define the difference? Response to Almeida. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 346–7.Google Scholar

Jeste, D. V., Twamley, E. W., Eyler Zorilla, L. T., et al. (2003). Aging and outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 107(5), 336–43.Google Scholar

Kane, J. M. & Marder, S. R. (1993). Psychopharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 287–302.Google Scholar

Kasckow, J. W., Mohamed, S., Zisook, S., & Jeste, D. V. (2003). Use of novel antipsychotics in older patients with schizophrenia. In Cohen, C. I., ed., Schizophrenia into Later Life: Treatment, Research, and Policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, pp. 195–204.

Kennedy, J. S., Bymaster, F. P., Schuh, L., et al. (2001). A current review of olanzapine's safety in the geriatric patient: From pre-clinical pharmacology to clinical data. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 33–61.Google Scholar

Krull, A. J., Press, G., Dupont, R., Harris, M. J., & Jeste, D. V. (1991). Brain imaging in late-onset schizophrenia and related psychoses. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 651–8.Google Scholar

Lacro, J. P. & Jeste, D. V. (1997). Geriatric psychosis. Psychiatric Quarterly, 68(3), 247–60.Google Scholar

Lacro, J. P., Harris, M. J., & Jeste, D. V. (1993). Late life psychosis. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 49–57.Google Scholar

Lamy, P. P., Salzman, C., & Nevis-Olesen, J. (1992). Drug prescribing patterns, risks, and compliance guidelines. In Salzman, C., ed., Clinical Geriatric Psychopharmacology, Vol. 2. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, pp. 15–37.

Lawrie, S. M., Whalley, H., Kestelman, J. N., et al., (1999). Magnetic resonance imaging of brain in people at high risk of developing Schizophrenia. Lancet, 353(9146), 30–3.Google Scholar

Lehmann, S. W. (2003). Psychiatric disorders in older women. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 269–79.Google Scholar

Lesser, I. M., Miller, B. L., Swartz, J. R., et al. (1993). Brain imaging in late-life schizophrenia and related psychoses. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 773–82.Google Scholar

Levy, R. & Almeida, O. P. (1994). Late-onset schizophrenia versus late paraphrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164(1), 127–8.Google Scholar

Lewis, D. A. (1995). Neural circuitry of the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 269–73.Google Scholar

Lindamer, L. A., Lohr, J. B., Harris, M. J., McAdams, L., & Jeste, D. V. (1999). Gender-related clinical differences in older patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(1), 61–7.Google Scholar

Marder, S. R. & Meibach, R. C. (1994). Risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 825–35.Google Scholar

McAdams, L. A., Harris, M. J., Heaton, S. C., et al. (1997). Validity of specific subscales of the positive and negative symptom scales in older schizophrenia outpatients. Schizophrenia Research, 27(2–3), 219–26.Google Scholar

McGlashan, T. H. (1988). A selective review of recent North American long-term follow-up studies of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 14, 515–42.Google Scholar

McGlashan, T. H. & Fenton, W. S. (1992). The positive–negative distinction in schizophrenia: Review of natural history validators. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 63–72.Google Scholar

McGuffin, P., Anderson, P., Owen, M., & Farmer, A. (1994). The strength of the genetic effect: Is there room for an environmental influence in the aetiology of schizophrenia?British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 593–9.Google Scholar

Miller, B. L., Lesser, I. M., Boone, K. B., et al. (1991). Brain lesions and cognitive function in late-life psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 76–82.Google Scholar

Mohamed, S., Paulsen, J. S., O'Leary, D., Arndt, S., & Andreasen, N. (1999). Generalized cognitive deficits in schizophrenia – A study of first-episode patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(8), 749–54.Google Scholar

Moller, H. J., Schmid-Bode, W., Cording-Tommel, C., et al. (1988). Psychopathological and social outcome in schizophrenia versus affective/schizoaffective psychoses and prediction of poor outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 77, 379–89.Google Scholar

Mulsant, B. H. & Gershon, S. (1993). Neuroleptics in the treatment of psychosis in late life: A rational approach. International Journal of Psychiatry, 8, 979–92.Google Scholar

Nishioka, N. & Arnold, S. E. (2004). Evidence for oxidative DNS damage in the hippocampus of elderly patients with chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12(2), 167–75.Google Scholar

Palmer, B. W., Heaton, R. K., & Jeste, D. V. (1999). Older patients with schizophrenia: Challenges in the coming decades. Psychiatric Services, 50(9), 1178–83.Google Scholar

Palmer, B. W., McClure, F. S., & Jeste, D. V. (2001). Schizophrenia in late-life: Findings challenge traditional concepts. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 51–8.Google Scholar

Patterson, T. L., Shaw, W., Semple, S. J., et al. (1997). Health-related quality of life in older patients with schizophrenia and other psychoses: Relationships among psychosocial and psychiatric factors. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 452–61.Google Scholar

Pearlson, G. D., Kreger, L., Rabins, P. V., et al. (1989). A chart review study of late-onset and early-onset schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1568–74.Google Scholar

Prager, S. & Jeste, D. V. (1993). Sensory impairment in late-life schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19 (4), 755–72.Google Scholar

Rabins, P., Pearlson, G., Jayaram, G., Steele, C., & Tune, L. (1987). Increased ventricle-to-brain ratio in late-onset schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1216–18.Google Scholar

Regier, D. A., Boyd, J. H., Burke, J. D., et al. (1988). One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 977–86.Google Scholar

Riecher-Rossler, A., Hafner, H., Dutsch-Strobel, A., et al. (1994). Further evidence for a specific role of estradiol in schizophrenia?Biological Psychiatry, 36(7), 492–4.Google Scholar

Ritchie, C. W., Chiu, E., Harrigan, S., et al. (2003). The impact upon extra-pyramidal side effects, clinical symptoms and quality of life of a switch from conventional to atypical antipsychotics (risperidone or olanzapine) in elderly patients with schizophrenia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 432–40.Google Scholar

Roca, R. P., Breakey, W. R., & Fisher, P. J. (1987). Medical care of chronic psychiatric outpatients. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 38, 741–5.Google Scholar

Sachdev, P., Brodaty, H., Cheang, D., & Cathcart, S. (2000). Hippocampus and amygdala volumes in elderly schizophrenic patients as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 54, 105–12.Google Scholar

Sajatovic, M., Madhusoodanan, S., & Buckley, P. (2000). Schizophrenia in the elderly: Guidelines for management. CNS Drugs, 13(2), 103–15.Google Scholar

Sajatovic, M., Sultana, D., Bingham, C. R., Buckley, P., & Donenwirth, K. (2002). Gender related differences in clinical characteristics and hospital based resource utilization among older adults with schizophrenia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17, 542–8.Google Scholar

Saller, C. F. & Salama, A. L. (1993). Seroquel: Biochemical profile of a potential atypical antipsychotic. Psychopharmacology, 112, 285–92.Google Scholar

Salzman, C. & Nevis-Olesen, J. (1992). Psychopharmacologic treatment. In Birren, J. E., Sloane, K. B., & Cohen, G. D., eds., Handbook of Mental Health and Aging, (2nd ed). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 721–62.

Scherrell, K., Buckwalter, K. C., Bode, R., & Strozdas, L. (1999). Use of the cognitive abilities screening instruments to assess elderly persons with schizophrenia in long-term care settings. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 20, 541–58.Google Scholar

Schultz, S. K. (2001). Conclusions: Late-life schizophrenia. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 84–7.Google Scholar

Schultz, S. K., Miller, D. D., Oliver, S. E., et al. (1997). The life-course of schizophrenia: Age and symptom dimensions. Schizophrenia Research, 23(1), 15–23.Google Scholar

Soni, S. D. & Mallik, A. (1993). The elderly chronic schizophrenic inpatient: A study of psychiatric morbidity in “elderly graduates”. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 665–73.Google Scholar

Symonds, L. L. & Jeste, D. V. (1997). Neuroimaging in late-life psychosis. In Krishnan, K. R. R. & Doraiswamy, P. M., eds., Brain Imaging in Clinical Psychiatry. New York: Dekker, pp. 425–28.

Symonds, L. L., Olichney, J. M., Jernigan, T. L., et al. (1997). Lack of clinically significant structural abnormalities in MRIs of older patients with schizophrenia and related psychoses. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 9, 251–8.Google Scholar

Talbot, K., Eidem, W. L., Tinsley, C. L., et al. (2004). Dysbindin-1 is reduced in intrinsic, glutamatergic terminals of the hippocampal formation in schizophrenia. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 113(9), 1353–63.Google Scholar

Tariot, P. N. (1999). The older patient: The ongoing challenge of efficacy and tolerability. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(Suppl. 23), 29–33.Google Scholar

Tarrier, N., Barrowclough, C., Andrews, B., & Gregg, L. (2004). Risk of non-fatal suicide ideation and behavior in recent onset schizophrenia – The influence of clinical, social, self-esteem and demographic variables. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39(11), 927–37.Google Scholar

Tollefson, G. D., Beasley, C. M. Jr., Tran, P. V., et al. (1997). Olanzapine versus haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia and schizoaffective and schizophreniform disorders: Results of an international collaborative trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 457–65.Google Scholar

Trojanowski, J. Q. & Arnold, S. E. (1995). In pursuit of the molecular neuropathology of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 274–6.Google Scholar

Tsuang, M. T., Stone, W. S., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Towards reformulating the diagnosis of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1041–50.Google Scholar

Weiss, A. P. & Heckers, S. (2001). Neuroimaging of declarative memory in schizophrenia. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42(3), 239–50.Google Scholar

White, L., Opler, L. A., Harvey, P. D., Parrella, M., & Friedman, J. I. (2004). Activation symptoms and discharge in elderly chronic schizophrenic inpatients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(12), 880–83.Google Scholar

Winokur, G., Pfohl, B., & Tsuang, M. (1987). A 50-year follow-up of hebephrenic-catatonic schizophrenia. In Miller, N., & Cohen, G., eds., Schizophrenia and Aging. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 52–60.

Wynn Owen, P. A., & Castle, D. J. (1999). Late-onset schizophrenia. Drugs and Aging, 15(2), 81–9.Google Scholar