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Willmer, P., Stone, G. & Johnston, I., Environmental Physiology of Animals, 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005). A wide-ranging and up-to-date reference book.Google Scholar

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Scientific American, monthly, has authoritative and beautifully illustrated articles, rather rarely about invertebrates.

Gould, S. J., Dinosaur in a Haystack (London: Penguin, 1997), and many other collections of essays.Google Scholar

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Benton, M. J., Stems, nodes, crown clades, and rank-free lists: is Linnaeus dead?Biological Reviews, 75 (2000), 633–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brooke, M. de L., How old are animals?Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14 (1999), 211–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Budd, G. E. & Jensen, S., A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla. Biological Reviews, 75 (2000), 253–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fortey, R. A., Life, an Unauthorised Biography: a Natural History of the First Four Thousand Million Years on Earth (London: Flamingo, 1998).Google Scholar

Morris, S. Conway, The fossil record and the early evolution of the Metazoa. Nature, 361 (1993), 219–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Morris, S. Conway, Eggs and embryos from the Cambrian. BioEssays, 20 (1998), 676–682.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Morris, S. Conway, The Crucible of Creation: the Burgess Shale and the Rise of Animals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

Knoll, A. H., Breathing room for early animals. Nature, 382 (1996), 111–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Vacelet, J. & Boury-Esnault, N., Carnivorous sponges. Nature, 373 (1995), 333–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leys, S. P. & Mackie, G. O., Electrical recording from a glass sponge. Nature, 387 (1997), 29–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leys, S. P. & Degnan, B. M., Cytological basis of photoresponsive behavior in a sponge larva. Biological Bulletin, 201 (2001), 323–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ender, A. & Schierwater, B., Placozoa are not derived cnidarians: evidence from molecular morphology. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 20 (2003), 130–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Voigt, O., Collins, A. G., Pearse, J. S.et al., Placozoa: no longer a phylum of one. Current Biology, 14 (2004), R944–R945.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Symposium (2005) (Nichols, S. & Worheide, G.), Sponges: new views of old animals. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 45 (2005), 333– (first few papers).Google Scholar

Frank, U., Leitz, T. & Muller, W. A., My favourite animal: the hydroid Hydractinia versatile, an informative cnidarian representative. BioEssays, 23 (2001), 963–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coates, M. M., Visual ecology and functional morphology of Cubozoa. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 542–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nordstrom, K., Wallen, R., Seymour, J.et al., A simple visual system without neurons in jellyfish larvae. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 270 (2003), 2349–2354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nillson, D. E., Gislen, L., Coates, M. M.et al., Advanced optics in a jellyfish eye. Nature, 435 (2005), 201–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baker, A. C., Starger, C. J., McClanahan, T. R.et al., Corals' adaptive response to climate change. Nature, 430 (2004), 741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pandolfi, J. M., Bradbury, R. H., Sala, E.et al., Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science, 301 (2003), 955–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gardner, T. A., Cote, I. M., Gill, J. A.et al., Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science, 301 (2003), 958–960.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wild, C., Huettal, M., Klueter, A.et al., Coral mucus functions as an energy carrier and particle trap in the reef ecosystem. Nature, 428 (2004), 66–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Symposium (2003) (Dewel, R. A.), New perspectives on the origin of metazoan complexity. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 1–86. Note useful papers on hexactinellid sponges, epithelium, the Cambrian fossil record, and also the following:Google Scholar

Cartwright, P., Developmental insights into the origin of complex colonial Hydrozoa. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 82–86.CrossRef

Rieger, R. M. & Ladurner, P., The significance of muscle cells for the origin of mesoderm. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 47–54.CrossRef

Jacobs, D. K. & Gates, R. D., Developmental genes and the reconstruction of metazoan evolution. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 11–18.CrossRef

Technau, U., Rudd, S., Maxwell, P.et al., Maintenance of ancestral complexity and non-metazoan genes in two basal Cnidaria. Trends in Genetics, 21 (2005), 633–639.CrossRef

Symposium (2002) (Garey, J. R.), The lesser known protostome taxa. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42 (2002), 611–703. Papers on Kinorhynchs, Nematomorphs, Gastrotrichs, Loricifera, Cycliophora, Rotifers, Acanthocephala; also Nemertea (Chapter 7) and Tardigrades (Chapter 12).Google Scholar

Matthews, B. E., An Introduction to Parasitology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

Clay, K., Parasites lost. Nature, 421 (2003), 585–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Torchin, M. E., Laferty, K. D., Dobson, A. P.et al., Introduced species and their missing parasites. Nature, 421 (2003), 628–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hoek, R. M., Kesteren, R. E., Smit, A. B.et al., Altered gene expression in the host brain caused by a trematode parasite: neuropeptide genes are preferentially affected during parasitosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94 (1997), 14072–14076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hurst, L. D. & Randerson, J., Parasitic sex puppeteers. Scientific American, April 2002, 42–47.Google ScholarPubMed

Gibson, R., British Nemerteans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).Google Scholar

Little, C., The Terrestrial Invasion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).Google Scholar

Hodgkin, J., Horvitz, H. R., Jasny, B. R. & J. Kimble, C. elegans: sequence to biology. Science, 282 (1998), 2011. Introduction to a special issue of Science devoted to C. elegans.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Plasterk, R. H. A., The Year of the Worm. BioEssays, 21 (1999), 105–109.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Blaxter, M., Two worms are better than one. Nature, 426 (2003), 395–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cohen, P., Review of work on RNA interference (RNAi). New Scientist, 14 September 2002, 28–33.Google Scholar

Bartolomaeus, T., Structure, function and development of segmental organs in Annelida. Hydrobiologia, 402 (1999), 21–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Martin, R. & Walther, P., Effects of discharging nematocysts when an aeolid nudibranch feeds on a hydroid. Journal of the Marine Biological Association, UK, 82 (2002), 455–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Greenwood, P. G., Garry, K., Hunter, A.et al., Adaptable defense: a nudibranch mucus inhibits nematocyst discharge and changes with prey type. Biological Bulletin, 206 (2004), 113–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hanlon, R. T. & Messenger, J., Cephalopod Behaviour (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

Budd, G. E., Why are arthropods segmented?Evolution and Development, 3 (2001), 332–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Budd, G. E., Tardigrades as stem-group arthropods: the evidence from the Cambrian fauna. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 240 (2001), 265–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

R. A. Fortey & R. H. Thomas (eds.), Arthropod Relationships (London: Chapman & Hall, 1997).

Barclay, S., Ash, J. E. & Rowell, D. M., Environmental factors influencing the presence and abundance of a log-dwelling invertebrate, Euperipatoides rowelli. Journal of Zoology, London, 250 (2000), 425–436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, J.-Y., Vannier, J. & Huang, D. Y., The origin of Crustacea: new evidence from the early Cambrian in China. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 268 (2001), 2181–2187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lavrov, D. V., Brown, W. M. & Boore, J. L., Phylogenetic position of the Pentastomida and (pan) crustacean relationships. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 271 (2004), 537–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Barlow, R. B., What the brain tells the eye [in the horseshoe crab]. Scientific American, April 1990, 66–71.Google ScholarPubMed

Chapman, R. F., The Insects: Structure and Function, 4th edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maddrell, S. H. P., Why are there no insects in the open sea?Journal of Experimental Biology, 201 (1998), 2461–2464.Google ScholarPubMed

McLeod, M. & Braddy, S., Invasion Earth. New Scientist, 8 June 2002, 38–41.Google Scholar

Ellington, C. P., Berg, C., Willmott, A.et al., Leading-edge vortices in insect flight. Nature, 384 (1996), 626–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wootton, R., How flies fly. Nature, 400 (1999), 112–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bartolomaeus, T., Ultrastructure and formation of the body cavity lining in Phoronis muelleri. Zoomorphology, 120 (2001), 135–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Peck, L. & Barnes, D. K. A., Metabolic flexibility: the key to long-term evolutionary success in Bryozoa?Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 271 (2004) (Suppl.), S18–S21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wilkie, I. C., Mutable collagenous tissues: extracellular matrix as mechano-effector. Echinoderm Studies, 5 (1996), 61–102.Google Scholar

Aizenburg, J., Tkachenko, A., Weiner, S.et al., Calcitic microlenses as part of the photoreceptor system in brittle stars. Nature, 412 (2001), 819–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eaves, A. A. & Palmer, A. R., Widespread cloning in echinoderm larvae. Nature, 425 (2003), 146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Vickery, M. S. & McClintock, J. B., Regeneration in metazoan larvae. Nature, 394 (1998), 140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lacalli, T. C., Vetulicolians: are they deuterostomes? Chordates?BioEssays, 24 (2002), 208–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Shu, D. G., Morris, S. Conway, Chen, H.et al., Primitive deuterostomes from the Chengjiang Lagerstätte (Lower Cambrian, China). Nature, 414 (2001), 419–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dilly, P. N., Cephalodiscus graptolitoides sp.nov.: a probable extant graptolite. Journal of Zoology, London, 229 (1993), 69–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rigby, S., Graptolites come to life. Nature, 362 (1993), 209–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lowe, C. J., Wu, M., Salic, A.et al., Anteroposterior patterning in hemichordates and the origins of the chordate nervous system. Cell, 113 (2003), 853–865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Tautz, D., Chordate evolution in a new light [comment on paper by Lowe et al.] Cell, 113 (2003), 812–813.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ruppert, E. E., Evolutionary origin of the vertebrate nephron. American Zoologist, 34 (1994), 542–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mayer, G. & Bartolomaeus, T., Ultrastructure of stomocord and heart glomerulus complex in Rhabdopleura compacta (Pterobranchiata) and phylogenetic implications. Zoomorphology, 122 (2003), 125–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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Nakajima, Y., Humphreys, T. & Kaneko, H.et al., Development and neural organisation of the tornaria larva of the Hawaiian hemichordate Ptychodera flava. Zoological Science, 21 (2004), 69–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

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Vacelet, J. & Boury-Esnault, N., Carnivorous sponges. Nature, 373 (1995), 333–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leys, S. P. & Mackie, G. O., Electrical recording from a glass sponge. Nature, 387 (1997), 29–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leys, S. P. & Degnan, B. M., Cytological basis of photoresponsive behavior in a sponge larva. Biological Bulletin, 201 (2001), 323–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ender, A. & Schierwater, B., Placozoa are not derived cnidarians: evidence from molecular morphology. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 20 (2003), 130–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Voigt, O., Collins, A. G., Pearse, J. S.et al., Placozoa: no longer a phylum of one. Current Biology, 14 (2004), R944–R945.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Symposium (2005) (Nichols, S. & Worheide, G.), Sponges: new views of old animals. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 45 (2005), 333– (first few papers).Google Scholar

Frank, U., Leitz, T. & Muller, W. A., My favourite animal: the hydroid Hydractinia versatile, an informative cnidarian representative. BioEssays, 23 (2001), 963–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coates, M. M., Visual ecology and functional morphology of Cubozoa. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 542–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nordstrom, K., Wallen, R., Seymour, J.et al., A simple visual system without neurons in jellyfish larvae. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 270 (2003), 2349–2354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nillson, D. E., Gislen, L., Coates, M. M.et al., Advanced optics in a jellyfish eye. Nature, 435 (2005), 201–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baker, A. C., Starger, C. J., McClanahan, T. R.et al., Corals' adaptive response to climate change. Nature, 430 (2004), 741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pandolfi, J. M., Bradbury, R. H., Sala, E.et al., Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science, 301 (2003), 955–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gardner, T. A., Cote, I. M., Gill, J. A.et al., Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science, 301 (2003), 958–960.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wild, C., Huettal, M., Klueter, A.et al., Coral mucus functions as an energy carrier and particle trap in the reef ecosystem. Nature, 428 (2004), 66–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Symposium (2003) (Dewel, R. A.), New perspectives on the origin of metazoan complexity. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 1–86. Note useful papers on hexactinellid sponges, epithelium, the Cambrian fossil record, and also the following:Google Scholar

Cartwright, P., Developmental insights into the origin of complex colonial Hydrozoa. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 82–86.CrossRef

Rieger, R. M. & Ladurner, P., The significance of muscle cells for the origin of mesoderm. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 47–54.CrossRef

Jacobs, D. K. & Gates, R. D., Developmental genes and the reconstruction of metazoan evolution. Integrated and Comparative Biology, 43 (2003), 11–18.CrossRef

Technau, U., Rudd, S., Maxwell, P.et al., Maintenance of ancestral complexity and non-metazoan genes in two basal Cnidaria. Trends in Genetics, 21 (2005), 633–639.CrossRef

Symposium (2002) (Garey, J. R.), The lesser known protostome taxa. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42 (2002), 611–703. Papers on Kinorhynchs, Nematomorphs, Gastrotrichs, Loricifera, Cycliophora, Rotifers, Acanthocephala; also Nemertea (Chapter 7) and Tardigrades (Chapter 12).Google Scholar

Matthews, B. E., An Introduction to Parasitology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

Clay, K., Parasites lost. Nature, 421 (2003), 585–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Torchin, M. E., Laferty, K. D., Dobson, A. P.et al., Introduced species and their missing parasites. Nature, 421 (2003), 628–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hoek, R. M., Kesteren, R. E., Smit, A. B.et al., Altered gene expression in the host brain caused by a trematode parasite: neuropeptide genes are preferentially affected during parasitosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94 (1997), 14072–14076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hurst, L. D. & Randerson, J., Parasitic sex puppeteers. Scientific American, April 2002, 42–47.Google ScholarPubMed

Gibson, R., British Nemerteans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).Google Scholar

Little, C., The Terrestrial Invasion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).Google Scholar

Hodgkin, J., Horvitz, H. R., Jasny, B. R. & J. Kimble, C. elegans: sequence to biology. Science, 282 (1998), 2011. Introduction to a special issue of Science devoted to C. elegans.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Plasterk, R. H. A., The Year of the Worm. BioEssays, 21 (1999), 105–109.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Blaxter, M., Two worms are better than one. Nature, 426 (2003), 395–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cohen, P., Review of work on RNA interference (RNAi). New Scientist, 14 September 2002, 28–33.Google Scholar

Bartolomaeus, T., Structure, function and development of segmental organs in Annelida. Hydrobiologia, 402 (1999), 21–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Martin, R. & Walther, P., Effects of discharging nematocysts when an aeolid nudibranch feeds on a hydroid. Journal of the Marine Biological Association, UK, 82 (2002), 455–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Greenwood, P. G., Garry, K., Hunter, A.et al., Adaptable defense: a nudibranch mucus inhibits nematocyst discharge and changes with prey type. Biological Bulletin, 206 (2004), 113–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hanlon, R. T. & Messenger, J., Cephalopod Behaviour (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

Budd, G. E., Why are arthropods segmented?Evolution and Development, 3 (2001), 332–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Budd, G. E., Tardigrades as stem-group arthropods: the evidence from the Cambrian fauna. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 240 (2001), 265–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

R. A. Fortey & R. H. Thomas (eds.), Arthropod Relationships (London: Chapman & Hall, 1997).

Barclay, S., Ash, J. E. & Rowell, D. M., Environmental factors influencing the presence and abundance of a log-dwelling invertebrate, Euperipatoides rowelli. Journal of Zoology, London, 250 (2000), 425–436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, J.-Y., Vannier, J. & Huang, D. Y., The origin of Crustacea: new evidence from the early Cambrian in China. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 268 (2001), 2181–2187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lavrov, D. V., Brown, W. M. & Boore, J. L., Phylogenetic position of the Pentastomida and (pan) crustacean relationships. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 271 (2004), 537–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Barlow, R. B., What the brain tells the eye [in the horseshoe crab]. Scientific American, April 1990, 66–71.Google ScholarPubMed

Chapman, R. F., The Insects: Structure and Function, 4th edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maddrell, S. H. P., Why are there no insects in the open sea?Journal of Experimental Biology, 201 (1998), 2461–2464.Google ScholarPubMed

McLeod, M. & Braddy, S., Invasion Earth. New Scientist, 8 June 2002, 38–41.Google Scholar

Ellington, C. P., Berg, C., Willmott, A.et al., Leading-edge vortices in insect flight. Nature, 384 (1996), 626–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wootton, R., How flies fly. Nature, 400 (1999), 112–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bartolomaeus, T., Ultrastructure and formation of the body cavity lining in Phoronis muelleri. Zoomorphology, 120 (2001), 135–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Peck, L. & Barnes, D. K. A., Metabolic flexibility: the key to long-term evolutionary success in Bryozoa?Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 271 (2004) (Suppl.), S18–S21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wilkie, I. C., Mutable collagenous tissues: extracellular matrix as mechano-effector. Echinoderm Studies, 5 (1996), 61–102.Google Scholar

Aizenburg, J., Tkachenko, A., Weiner, S.et al., Calcitic microlenses as part of the photoreceptor system in brittle stars. Nature, 412 (2001), 819–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eaves, A. A. & Palmer, A. R., Widespread cloning in echinoderm larvae. Nature, 425 (2003), 146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Vickery, M. S. & McClintock, J. B., Regeneration in metazoan larvae. Nature, 394 (1998), 140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lacalli, T. C., Vetulicolians: are they deuterostomes? Chordates?BioEssays, 24 (2002), 208–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Shu, D. G., Morris, S. Conway, Chen, H.et al., Primitive deuterostomes from the Chengjiang Lagerstätte (Lower Cambrian, China). Nature, 414 (2001), 419–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dilly, P. N., Cephalodiscus graptolitoides sp.nov.: a probable extant graptolite. Journal of Zoology, London, 229 (1993), 69–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rigby, S., Graptolites come to life. Nature, 362 (1993), 209–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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