The debate over Russian politics remains as contested as ever, but with an emerging consensus that by the end of Vladimir Putin's second presidential term in 2008, Russian democracy was in crisis. The system in formal institutional terms was undoubtedly a liberal democracy, but practice fell short of declared principles. Views differed over the reasons for, and nature of, the crisis. This chapter will focus on two key issues. First, it will provide a theoretical framework in which the features of the crisis can be examined; and second, the fundamental processes characterising the crisis will be analysed. The combination of methodological and substantive analysis will allow us not only to examine developments, but also to frame how best to think about contemporary Russian politics. Our dual state model, which contrasts the constitutional state with the administrative regime, suggests that it is premature to write off the democratising impulse in Russia altogether. Instead, we shall argue that in an intensely contradictory but nonetheless substantive manner, the potential for democratic renewal within the existing constitutional order has not been exhausted; but at the same time authoritarian consolidation remains possible.

Politics in the ‘gray zone’

The crisis of Russian democracy does not take place in a vacuum, and reflects the broader challenges facing the post-communist world. The instrumental use of the democratisation agenda in the post-Cold War world has provoked something of a backlash against the whole notion of a staged transition to democracy. The democratisation ‘industry’ has also been called into question.