Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-jbqgn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-08T04:41:23.545Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

18 - The developmental environment and the development of obesity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 August 2009

Michael E. Symonds
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham
David S. Gardner
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham
Peter Gluckman
Affiliation:
University of Auckland
Mark Hanson
Affiliation:
University of Southampton
Get access

Summary

The pandemic of obesity: what are its origins?

The incidence of childhood and adult obesity continues to increase annually worldwide within both developed and developing countries, despite substantial international research into the potential mechanisms that may underlie this pandemic. Indeed worldwide there are now as many individuals who are overnourished as are undernourished. The speed with which obesity, has risen, particularly in countries such as India and China as they adopt Western diets and lifestyles, strongly suggests that genetic factors are not the explanation. Currently nearly all research and intervention strategies are targeted towards adult obesity, which could explain the failure to reduce its incidence. Given the growing body of epidemiological and experimental evidence demonstrating that obesity is programmed in utero, this anomaly should be addressed. The potential significance of fetal programming to later health is emphasised by the fact that obesity alone is not only a major health risk itself, but is also an adverse factor contributing towards hypertension (Hall 2003) and cancer (Bray 2002).

Epidemiological evidence for fetal programming of obesity

Taken together, the overall consensus from epidemiological studies is that being either small or large at birth predicts later obesity (Law et al. 1992, Sorensen et al. 1997). Whether this is the result of changes within the adipocyte itself, or in appetite control, or a combination of both, remains an area of intense debate within the field of obesity research.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, G. and Williams, D. (1968). Shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis during summit metabolism in young lambs. J. Physiol., 198, 251–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bamberger, C. M., Schulte, H. M. and Chrousos, G. P. (1996). Molecular determinants of glucocorticoid receptor function and tissue sensitivity to glucocorticoids. Endocr. Rev., 17, 245–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bispham, J., Gopalakrishnan, G. S., Dandrea, J.et al. (2003a). Maternal endocrine adaptation throughout pregnancy to nutritional manipulation: consequences for maternal plasma leptin and cortisol and the programming of fetal adipose tissue development. Endocrinology, 144, 3575–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bispham, J., Pearce, S., Dandrea, J., Symonds, M. E. and Stephenson, T. (2003b). The effect of maternal parity on leptin mRNA expression and perirenal adipose tissue deposition over the first month of postnatal life in sheep. J. Physiol. Proc. Physiol. Soc., 555P, C98.Google Scholar
Bispham, J., Pearce, S., Dandrea, J., Stephenson, T. and Symonds, M. E. (2004). The effect of maternal parity on insulin-like growth factor-I and -II receptor expression and perirenal adipose tissue deposition over the first month of postnatal life in sheep. J. Soc. Gynecol. Investig., 11 (Suppl.), 254A.Google Scholar
Bray, G. A. (2002). The underlying basis for obesity: relationship to cancer. J. Nur., 132, 3451–5S.Google Scholar
Broughton, Pipkin F. and Roberts, J. M. (2000). Hypertension in pregnancy. J. Hum. Hypertens., 14, 705–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchanan, T. A. and Kjos, S. L. (1999). Gestational diabetes: risk or myth?J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 84, 1854–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budge, H., Mostyn, A., Wilson, V.et al. (2002). The effect of maternal prolactin infusion during pregnancy on fetal adipose tissue development. J. Endocrinol., 147, 427–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budge, H., Dandrea, J., Mostyn, A.et al. (2003). Differential effects of fetal number and maternal nutrition in late gestation on prolactin receptor abundance and adipose tissue development in the neonatal lamb. Pediatr. Res., 53, 302–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budge, H., Edwards, L. J., McMillen, I. C.et al. (2004). Nutritional manipulation of fetal adipose tissue deposition and uncoupling protein 1 abundance in the fetal sheep: differential effects of timing and duration. Biol. Reprod., 71, 359–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cianfarani, S., Germani, D. and Branca, F. (1999). Low birthweight and adult insulin resistance: the ‘catch-up growth’ hypothesis. Arch. Dis. Child., 81, F71–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, L., Buss, D. S., Juniper, D. S., Lomax, M. A. and Symonds, M. E. (1997a). Adipose tissue development during early postnatal life in ewe-reared lambs. Exp. Physiol., 82, 1015–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, L., Heasman, L., Firth, K. and Symonds, M. E. (1997b). Influence of route of delivery and ambient temperature on thermoregulation in newborn lambs. Am. J. Physiol., 272, R1931–9.Google Scholar
Dandrea, J., Wilson, V., Gopalakrishnan, G.et al. (2001). Maternal nutritional manipulation of placental growth and glucose transporter-1 abundance in sheep. Reproduction, 122, 793–800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, D., Mostyn, A., Gardner, D. S.et al. (2003). Effect of protein supplementation to mother at specific stages of gestation on fetal adipose tissue. Endocr. Abstr., 6, P45.Google Scholar
Edwards, L. J. and McMillen, I. C. (2002). Impact of maternal undernutrition during the periconceptional period, fetal number, and fetal sex on the development of the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis in sheep during late gestation. Biol. Reprod., 66, 1562–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksson, J., Forsén, T., Tuomilehto, J., Osmond, C. and Barker, D. (2000). Fetal and childhood growth and hypertension in adult life. Hypertension, 36, 790–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksson, J. G., Forsén, T., Tuomilehto, J., Winter, P. D., Osmond, C. and Barker, D. J. P. (1999). Catch-up growth in childhood and death from coronary heart disease: longitudinal study. BMJ, 318, 427–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksson, J. G., Lindi, V., Uusitupa, M.et al. (2002). The effects of the Pro12Ala polymorphism of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ2 gene on insulin sensitivity and insulin metabolism interact with size at birth. Diabetes, 51, 2321–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esler, M. (2000). The sympathetic nervous system and hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens., 13, 99–105S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forsén, T., Eriksson, J. G., Tuomilehto, J., Teramo, K., Osmond, C. and Barker, D. J. P. (1997). Mother's weight in pregnancy and coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men: follow up study. BMJ, 315, 837–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freemark, M., Fleenor, D., Driscoll, P., Binart, N. and Kelly, P. A. (2001). Body weight and fat deposition in prolactin receptor-deficient mice. Endocrinology, 142, 532–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, D. S., Jamall, E., Fletcher, A. J. W., Fowden, A. L. and Giussani, D. A. (2004a). Adrenocortical responsiveness is blunted in twin relative to singleton ovine fetuses. J. Physiol., 557, 1021–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, D. S., Pearce, S., Dandrea, J.et al. (2004b). The effect of feeding on leptin concentration and regional adipose tissue deposition in singleton and twin sheep at one year of age. J. Physiol. Proc. Physiol. Soc., 555P, C97.Google Scholar
Gopalakrishnan, G., Gardner, D. S., Rhind, S. M.et al. (2004). Programming of adult cardiovascular function after early maternal undernutrition in sheep. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 287, R12–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwood, P. L., Hunt, A. S., Hermanson, J. W. and Bell, A. W. (1998). Effects of birth weight and postnatal nutrition on neonatal sheep. I. Body growth and composition, and some aspects of energetic efficiency. J. Anim. Sci., 76, 2354–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, J. E. (2003). The kidney, hypertension, and obesity. Hypertension, 41, 625–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, J. E., Hilderbrandt, D. A. and Kuo, J. (2001). Obesity hypertension: role of leptin and sympathetic nervous system. Am. J. Hypertens., 14, 103–15S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, W. G., Morgan, D. A., Djalali, A., Sivitz, W. I. and Mark, A. L. (1999). Interactions between the melanocortin system and leptin in control of sympathetic nerve traffic. Hypertension, 33, 542–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Itoh, H., Sagawa, N., Yura, S.et al. (2004). Adipocytokine mRNA expression in the skin was decreased in growth restricted mice fetuses. J. Soc. Gynecol. Investig., 11 (Suppl), 245A.Google Scholar
Landsberg, L. and Krieger, D. R. (1989). Obesity, metabolism and the sympathetic nervous system. Am. J. Hypertens., 2, 125–32S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Law, C. M., Barker, D. J. P., Osmond, C., Fall, C. H. and Simmonds, S. J. (1992). Early growth and abdominal fatness in adult life. J. Epidemiol. Community Health, 46, 184–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masuzaki, H., Paterson, J., Shinyama, H.et al. (2001). A transgenic model of visceral obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Science, 294, 2166–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCance, R. A. and Widdowson, E. M. (1974). The determinants of growth and form. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 185, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mostyn, A., Bispham, J., Pearce, S.et al. (2002). Differential effects of leptin on thermoregulation and uncoupling protein abundance in the neonatal lamb. FASEB J., 16, 1438–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mostyn, A., Pearce, S., Budge, H.et al. (2003). Influence of cortisol on adipose tissue development in the fetal sheep during late gestation. J. Endocrinol., 176, 23–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mühlhäusler, B. S., Roberts, C. T., Yuen, B. S. J.et al. (2003). Determinants of fetal leptin synthesis, fat mass and circulating leptin concentrations in well nourished ewes in late pregnancyEndocrinology, 144, 4947–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ong, K. K., Ahmed, M. L., Emmett, P. M., Preece, M. A. and Dunger, D. B. (2000). Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study. BMJ, 320, 967–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozanne, S. E., Nave, B. T., Wang, C. L., Shepherd, P. R., Prins, J. and Smith, G. D. (1997). Poor fetal growth causes long-term changes in expression of insulin signaling components in adipocytes. Am. J. Physiol., 273, E46–51.Google Scholar
Parsons, T. J., Power, C. and Manor, O. (2001). Fetal and early life growth and body mass index from birth to early adulthood in 1958 British cohort: longitudinal study. BMJ, 323, 1331–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reinehr, T. and Andler, W. (2004). Changes in the atherogenic risk factor profile according to degree of wieght loss. Arch. Dis. Child., 89, 419–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reitman, M. L., Bi, S., Marcus-Samuels, B. and Gavrilova, O. (2001). Leptin and its role in pregnancy and fetal development: an overview. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 29, 68–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, I. (2003). The influence of birthweight and intrauterine environment on adiposity and fat distribution in later life. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord., 27, 755–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sorensen, H. T., Sabroe, S., Rothman, K. J., Gillman, M., Fischer, P. and Sorensen, T. I. (1997). Relation between weight and length at birth and body mass index in young adulthood: cohort study. BMJ, 315, 1137–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steppan, C. M., Brown, E. J., Wright, C. M.et al. (2001). A family of tissue-specific resistin-like molecules. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 98, 502–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, D. and Alexander, G. (1986). Lipid deposition after hypophysectomy and growth hormone treatment in the sheep fetus. J. Dev. Physiol., 8, 139–45.Google ScholarPubMed
Stevens, D., Alexander, G. and Bell, A. W. (1990). Effects of prolonged glucose infusion into fetal sheep on body growth, fat deposition and gestation length. J. Dev. Physiol., 13, 277–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Stewart, P. M. and Krozowski, Z. S. (1999). 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Vitam. Horm., 57, 249–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symonds, M. E., Bryant, M. J., Clarke, L., Darby, C. J. and Lomax, M. A. (1992). Effect of maternal cold exposure on brown adipose tissue and thermogenesis in the neonatal lamb. J. Physiol., 455, 487–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symonds, M. E., Bird, J. A., Clarke, L., Gate, J. J. and Lomax, M. A. (1995). Nutrition, temperature and homeostasis during perinatal development. Exp. Physiol., 80, 907–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symonds, M. E., Andrews, D. C., Buss, D. S., Clarke, L., Darby, C. J. and Lomax, M. A. (1996). Effect of rearing temperature on perirenal adipose tissue development and thermoregulation following methimazole treatment of postnatal lambs. Exp. Physiol., 81, 995–1006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symonds, M. E., Bird, J. A., Sullivan, C., Wilson, V., Clarke, L. and Stephenson, T. (2000). Effect of delivery temperature on endocrine stimulation of thermoregulation in lambs born by cesarean section. J. Appl. Physiol., 88, 47–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symonds, M. E., Mostyn, A. and Stephenson, T. (2001). Cytokines and cytokine-receptors in fetal growth and development. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 29, 33–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Symonds, M. E., Pearce, S., Bispham, J., Gardner, D. S. and Stephenson, T. (2004). Timing of nutrient restriction and programming of fetal adipose tissue development. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 63, 397–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teruel, T., Valverde, A. M., Benito, M. and Lorenzo, M. (1996). Insulin-like growth factor and insulin induce adipogenic-related gene expression in fetal brown adipocyte primary cultures. Biochem. J., 319, 627–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernon, R. G., Clegg, R. A. and Flint, D. J. (1981). Aspects of adipose tissue metabolism in foetal lambs. Biochem. J., 196, 819–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vickers, M. H., Breier, B. H., Cutfield, W. S., Hofman, P. L. and Gluckman, P. D. (2000). Fetal origins of hyperphagia, obesity, and hypertension and postnatal amplification by hypercaloric nutrition. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 279, E83–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vickers, M. H., Reddy, S., Ikenasio, B. A. and Breier, B. H. (2001). Dysregulation of the adipoinsular axis: a mechanism for the pathogenesis of hyperleptinemia and adipogenic diabetes induced by fetal programming. J. Endocrinol., 170, 323–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vickers, M. H., Breier, B. H., McCarthy, D. and Gluckman, P. D. (2003). Sedentary behavior during postnatal life is determined by the prenatal environment and exacerbated by postnatal hypercaloric nutritionAm. J. Physiol., Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 285, R271–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whorwood, C. B., Firth, K. M., Budge, H. and Symonds, M. E. (2001). Maternal undernutrition during early to mid-gestation programmes tissue-specific alterations in the expression of the glucocorticoid receptor, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms and type 1 angiotensin II receptor in neonatal sheep. Endocrinology, 142, 2854–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, G. (2003). Adiponectin: a regulator of energy homeostasis. Nutr. Rev., 61, 290–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Yajnik, C. S. (2004). Obesity epidemic in India: intrauterine origins?Proc. Nutr. Soc., 63, 387–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yuen, B. S., Owens, P. C., Muhlhausler, B. S.et al. (2003). Leptin alters the structural and functional characteristics of adipose tissue before birth. FASEB J., 17, 1102–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×