Manuscript Sources

We are fortunate in having a number of documentary sources for events in this period, some of which focus directly on the invasions. The manuscript sources include annals from the various versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) that are contemporary, or nearly contemporary, with events. A related source is the Chronicle of John of Worcester (JW) which, though written about one hundred years after the events, draws upon the ASC and some other early sources that are no longer otherwise extant. The Encomium Emmae Reginae (Encomium) is a source dating from the mid-eleventh century, containing information about Swein Forkbeard's final invasion of England and Cnut's conquest. Much of the information in the Encomium came directly or indirectly from contemporary witnesses who were themselves leading participants in those events. There are other documentary sources that will be referred to, as they become relevant.

At the outset, it should be acknowledged that a detailed critical analysis of the manuscript sources leads inevitably to doubts about their reliability. Fortunately, advances made in our knowledge of the late Anglo-Saxon period have been extensive and exciting. Dating techniques, such as dendrochronology, have been developed and used to good effect. We have a better understanding of climate and weather conditions and their impact on events. Archaeological research has been extensive, opening up new perspectives on the age, as has the study of numismatics. Palaeographical research and the careful analysis of diplomas have added greatly to our knowledge.